DNA Extraction and RNA Structure

This page covers two main topics: the process of extracting DNA from cells and the structure and types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. The process of extracting DNA with cold salt solution is described in detail, highlighting the importance of using cold temperatures and detergents to protect and release DNA from cells.

Highlight: DNA can be easily extracted using a solution of ice-cold salt and washing-up liquid, which dissolves cell membranes and protects DNA from degradation.

The page then transitions to discussing the structure of RNA, emphasizing its differences from DNA. It explains that RNA is typically a shorter, single-stranded molecule with ribose sugar and uracil instead of thymine.

Definition: RNA $Ribonucleic Acid$ is a single-stranded nucleic acid that differs from DNA in its sugar component and one of its nitrogenous bases.

The functions and types of RNA in protein synthesis are introduced, with brief descriptions of messenger RNA $mRNA$, ribosomal RNA $rRNA$, and transfer RNA $tRNA$. Each type of RNA is explained in terms of its structure and role in protein synthesis.

Example: Transfer RNA $tRNA$ has a cloverleaf shape with an anticodon at one end and an amino acid at the other, facilitating the transfer of amino acids during translation.

RNA Structure and DNA Functions

This page delves deeper into the structure of tRNA and the primary functions of DNA. It begins with a detailed illustration of tRNA's cloverleaf structure, showing its various arms and the location of the anticodon.

Highlight: The tRNA molecule has a distinctive cloverleaf shape with several arms, including the anticodon arm that contains the three-base anticodon sequence.

The page then shifts focus to the two main functions of DNA: protein synthesis and replication. It explains how the sequence of bases in the template strand of DNA determines the order of amino acids in a polypeptide, emphasizing the importance of DNA in protein production.

Definition: DNA replication is the process by which a complete copy of DNA is made when cells divide.

The text introduces three theories for DNA replication: conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive. Each theory is briefly explained, setting the stage for a more detailed discussion of the semi-conservative model in the following pages.

Vocabulary: Semi-conservative replication is the process where parental DNA strands separate and each acts as a template for synthesizing a new complementary strand.

DNA Replication Process and Meselson-Stahl Experiment

This page focuses on the process of semi-conservative DNA replication and the groundbreaking Meselson-Stahl experiment that provided evidence for this model. The text details the steps involved in DNA replication, emphasizing the roles of key enzymes and molecules.

Example: DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between bases, causing the double helix to unwind and separate.

The page explains how DNA polymerase binds complementary nucleotides to form new strands, resulting in two DNA molecules, each containing one parent strand and one newly synthesized strand.

Highlight: The semi-conservative replication process ensures that each new DNA molecule contains one original parent strand and one newly synthesized complementary strand.

The Meselson-Stahl experiment is then introduced as a crucial study that determined the exact mechanism of DNA replication. The text outlines the experimental procedure, which involved growing bacteria in media containing different nitrogen isotopes and analyzing the resulting DNA.

Definition: The Meselson-Stahl experiment was designed to distinguish between the three proposed models of DNA replication: conservative, semi-conservative, and dispersive.

The page concludes by explaining how the results of this experiment provided strong evidence for the semi-conservative model of DNA replication.

Genetic Code and Meselson-Stahl Experiment Results

This final page presents the results of the Meselson-Stahl experiment in a visual format, showing the distribution of DNA bands after centrifugation for different generations of bacteria grown in varying nitrogen isotope media. The diagram clearly illustrates how the DNA bands shift over generations, supporting the semi-conservative replication model.

Highlight: The Meselson-Stahl experiment results showed an intermediate-weight DNA band after one generation and a mixture of intermediate and light DNA bands after two generations, conclusively demonstrating semi-conservative replication.

The page then introduces the concept of the genetic code, explaining how sequences of nucleotides form codons that specify amino acids in protein synthesis.

Definition: A codon is a triplet of nucleotides that codes for a specific amino acid in the genetic code.

The text provides examples of DNA codons and their corresponding mRNA codons, illustrating the relationship between DNA sequences and the amino acids they encode.

Example: The DNA codon GGG corresponds to the mRNA codon CCC, demonstrating the complementary nature of DNA transcription to mRNA.

This final section ties together the concepts of DNA structure, replication, and the genetic code, providing a comprehensive overview of how genetic information is stored, replicated, and translated into proteins.

Nucleotide Structure and Function

This page introduces the fundamental components of nucleic acids, focusing on the structure of nucleotides in DNA and RNA. Nucleotides are the building blocks of these essential molecules, each containing a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and a pentose sugar. The page also highlights the differences between DNA and RNA nucleotides, particularly in their sugar components and nitrogenous bases.

Vocabulary: Nucleotides are the monomers that make up DNA and RNA.

Definition: A nucleotide consists of three parts: a phosphate group, a nitrogen-containing organic base, and a pentose $5-carbon$ sugar.

The page further elaborates on the types of nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA, categorizing them into pyrimidines and purines. It lists the four bases found in DNA: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine, noting that uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

Highlight: ATP $Adenosine Triphosphate$ is also a nucleotide, playing a crucial role in energy transfer within cells.

The page concludes with an explanation of ATP's function, describing how the hydrolysis of ATP by the enzyme ATPase releases energy for cellular use, forming ADP in a reversible reaction.

Example: ATP → ADP + Pi + 30.6kJ energy