Henry VII: Securing the Dynasty (1485-1509)

Henry VII's reign was all about survival and legitimacy after winning the crown at Bosworth Field. He immediately worked to secure his position by marrying Elizabeth of York in 1486, uniting the warring houses of Lancaster and York. This wasn't just romance - it was smart politics.

The early years were plagued by pretenders and rebellions. Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward, Earl of Warwick, leading to his defeat at Stoke in 1487. More dangerous was Perkin Warbeck, who pretended to be Richard, Duke of York, and caused trouble from 1491 until his execution in 1499.

Henry was brilliant at foreign policy and economics. Treaties like Medina del Campo (1489) and Étaples (1492) brought both peace and profit. He banned foreign merchants from exporting unfinished cloth, boosting English industry. The Intercursus Magnus (1496) secured vital trade with Burgundy.

Key Point: Henry VII transformed England from a war-torn kingdom into a stable, wealthy nation through careful diplomacy and shrewd financial policies.

Early Henry VIII: Glory and Wolsey (1509-1529)

Henry VIII's early reign couldn't have been more different from his father's cautious approach. Young Henry wanted glory, war, and spectacle. He immediately executed his father's unpopular tax collectors, Empson and Dudley, winning instant popularity.

Cardinal Wolsey emerged as the king's chief minister by 1514, becoming Lord Chancellor in 1515. Wolsey dominated policy for fifteen years, managing everything from foreign wars to domestic administration. His greatest achievement was the Treaty of London (1518), making England the centre of European diplomacy.

Henry's early military campaigns brought mixed results. The Battle of Flodden (1513) saw England defeat Scotland, but expensive wars against France achieved little beyond capturing Tournai and Thérouanne. The Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520) showed Henry's love of magnificent display.

Key Point: The Amicable Grant crisis (1525) showed that even Henry VIII had limits - widespread opposition forced him to abandon this unpopular tax.

The Break with Rome and Religious Revolution (1530-1547)

Everything changed when Henry couldn't get his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled. Wolsey's failure led to his fall in 1529, replaced first by Thomas More, then by Thomas Cromwell. This wasn't just about divorce - it reshaped England's entire relationship with Europe.

Thomas Cromwell revolutionised government and religion. The Act of Supremacy (1534) made Henry head of the English Church, breaking with papal authority forever. More's execution (1535) showed Henry's ruthless determination to enforce his will, even against his former friend.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1540) was a massive transfer of wealth and power. Henry gained enormous riches, but also faced the largest rebellion of his reign - the Pilgrimage of Grace (1536). Meanwhile, his marriages became a political soap opera: Anne Boleyn executed (1536), Jane Seymore died giving birth to Edward (1537).

Henry's later years saw continued religious confusion. The conservative Six Articles (1539) conflicted with reformist policies, whilst Cromwell's execution (1540) ended the most radical phase of change.

Key Point: Henry's 'Great Matter' accidentally created the Church of England and fundamentally changed English society, politics, and religion.

Edward VI: Protestant Revolution and Social Crisis (1547-1553)

Nine-year-old Edward VI's reign meant government by regency councils, first under Edward Seymour (Duke of Somerset), then John Dudley (Duke of Northumberland). Despite Edward's youth, this period saw England's most radical Protestant reforms.

Somerset's protectorate (1547-1549) pushed aggressive Protestant policies. The first Act of Uniformity (1549) enforced the English Prayer Book, whilst royal injunctions removed Catholic practices. However, Somerset's social policies, including the Enclosure Commission, created massive unrest.

1549 was a year of crisis - the Western Rebellion protested religious changes whilst Kett's Rebellion demanded social justice. Somerset's inability to handle these crises led to his fall. Northumberland proved more ruthless and effective, but pushed even more extreme Protestant reforms.

Edward's early death in 1553 triggered a succession crisis. Northumberland's attempt to put Lady Jane Grey on the throne failed spectacularly - she ruled for just nine days before Mary Tudor claimed her rightful crown.

Key Point: Edward's reign proved that rapid religious change without popular consent creates dangerous political instability.

Mary I: Catholic Restoration and Spanish Alliance (1553-1558)

Mary's reign aimed to restore Catholic England, but her methods created more problems than solutions. Her marriage to Philip of Spain (1554) was deeply unpopular, seen as making England a Spanish puppet state. Wyatt's Rebellion that same year nearly succeeded in removing her.

The restoration of heresy laws (1555) began the burnings that earned Mary her nickname 'Bloody Mary'. Around 280 Protestants died, including Archbishop Cranmer (1556). Rather than converting England, these executions created Protestant martyrs and strengthened opposition.

Economic and social crises plagued Mary's reign. Harvest failures (1555-1556), influenza epidemics, and war with France drained royal resources. The loss of Calais (1558) was a national humiliation - England's last possession in France, held for over 200 years.

Mary's greatest failure was dying childless in 1558. Despite five years of Catholic restoration, England remained fundamentally changed by the Reformation. Her half-sister Elizabeth's accession promised a return to Protestant policies.

Key Point: Mary's persecution of Protestants backfired spectacularly, creating a powerful Protestant mythology that lasted for centuries.

Early Elizabeth I: Settlement and Survival (1558-1588)

Elizabeth's religious settlement (1559) was a masterpiece of political compromise. The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity established a moderate Protestant church that most English people could accept. Unlike her siblings' extreme policies, Elizabeth sought the 'middle way'.

Catholic threats dominated Elizabeth's reign. Mary Queen of Scots fled to England (1568), becoming a focus for Catholic plots. The Northern Rebellion (1569), Rudolf Plot (1571), and Babington Plot (1586) all aimed to replace Elizabeth with Mary. Elizabeth's excommunication by Pope Pius V (1570) intensified Catholic opposition.

Elizabeth's government became increasingly sophisticated and ruthless. Sir Francis Walsingham's spy network uncovered Catholic conspiracies, whilst tightening anti-Catholic laws (1581) made life increasingly difficult for English Catholics. The execution of Mary Queen of Scots (1587) removed the greatest Catholic threat.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) was Elizabeth's greatest triumph. Philip II's massive invasion fleet was destroyed by English seamanship, superior tactics, and lucky weather. This victory established England as a major European power and secured Protestant rule.

Key Point: Elizabeth's early reign shows how moderate policies and skilled intelligence work could overcome seemingly impossible religious and political divisions.

Later Elizabeth I: Golden Age and Growing Problems (1588-1603)

Elizabeth's later years were marked by increasing political and economic strain. The death of key advisors like Walsingham (1590) and Lord Burghley (1598) left Elizabeth increasingly isolated. Robert Cecil's promotion showed the rise of a new generation of politicians.

Economic crisis dominated the 1590s. Harvest failures (1594-1597) led to food riots and reports of starvation in northern England. The government's response included important social legislation - the Poor Laws (1598, revised 1601) created England's first systematic approach to poverty relief.

The Essex Rebellion (1601) revealed growing tensions at court. Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, had been Elizabeth's favourite but his failed coup attempt ended with his execution. Parliamentary opposition to royal monopolies showed growing political confidence amongst the gentry.

Elizabeth's refusal to marry or name a successor created uncertainty throughout her reign. The Tyrone Rebellion in Ireland (1594-1603) proved costly and difficult to suppress. When Elizabeth died in 1603, England was ready for change under James I.

Key Point: Elizabeth's long reign created stability and prosperity, but by 1603 England faced new challenges that required fresh approaches to government and society.