Unit 2 Structure Overview

This unit covers everything you need to know about criminality theories and social constructions of crime. You'll work through specific assessment criteria (ACs) that build your understanding step by step.

The unit is organised into clear sections: understanding norms versus criminal behaviour (AC 1.1 & 1.2), exploring biological theories of crime (AC 2.1), and evaluating these theories critically (AC 3.2). You'll also examine how social factors influence criminal behaviour and apply your knowledge to real-world scenarios.

Each section includes evaluation points that are crucial for your 6 and 9 mark exam questions. Remember, evaluation appears throughout Topic 2, so you'll be building these critical thinking skills constantly.

Quick Tip: The bracketed numbers (like 3.2) show where evaluation content appears - this helps you spot those all-important analysis points for higher marks!

Understanding Norms, Values and Criminal Behaviour

Norms are the unwritten rules that guide how we behave in specific situations - think using cutlery, wearing shoes, or queueing properly. Values are our deeper beliefs about right and wrong, like respect and politeness.

Here's the key distinction you need to master: criminal behaviour breaks the law, whilst deviant behaviour simply goes against social norms. Something criminal is usually deviant, but deviant acts aren't always criminal. For example, talking loudly on a train is deviant but not criminal.

Criminal behaviour requires two elements: mens rea (guilty mind - the intention) and actus reas (guilty act - the actual behaviour). This is why circumstances matter so much in court cases.

Remember: Crime is socially constructed - it changes over time and across cultures. Homosexuality was illegal until 1967 but is now completely legal in the UK.

How Laws Vary Across Cultures and Time

Laws aren't universal - they're shaped by cultural values and historical context. Polygamy is legal in 58 countries like India and Malaysia, but illegal in the UK and USA because it's seen as violating women's rights.

Cannabis use shows this variation perfectly. Portugal has legalised it for recreational use, whilst Muslim countries and the Philippines maintain strict bans. In the UK, possession can get you 5 years in prison.

Laws also evolve over time due to social pressure and tragic events. The Dunblane massacre in 1996 led to the complete ban of handguns by 1998, following campaigns like Snow Drop that gathered 750,000 signatures.

Gun control laws changed after mass shootings, whilst homosexuality was decriminalised following the Wolfenden Report. Even our understanding of childhood has evolved - 13th century children were treated as "mini adults" and sent to work early, but now child welfare is a fundamental legal principle.

Key Point: Social construction of crime means what's illegal today might be legal tomorrow, and what's criminal here might be perfectly acceptable elsewhere.

Biological Theories: Genetic Evidence

Biological theories suggest that criminal behaviour might be influenced by our genes and physical characteristics. These theories attempt to explain why some people are more likely to commit crimes than others.

Jacobs' XYY theory proposes that males with an extra Y chromosome are "super males" who tend to be more aggressive and violent. These individuals supposedly show explosive tempers, hyperactivity, and antisocial behaviour. Serial killer John Wayne Gacy was speculated to have XYY syndrome.

Twin studies by Christiansen (1977) found that 52% of identical twins both became criminals compared to only 21% of non-identical twins. This suggests genetics play a role, since identical twins share 100% of their DNA.

Adoption studies by Hutchings and Mednick examined 14,000 adopted children and found that boys with criminal convictions often had biological parents with convictions too. This supports the idea that criminal tendencies might be inherited rather than learned from the environment.

Critical Thinking: These studies show correlation, not causation - just because twins both commit crimes doesn't prove genes cause criminality!

Biological Theories: Physical Characteristics

Lombroso's theory was groundbreaking but deeply flawed. He believed criminals were a separate, primitive species identifiable by atavistic traits like high cheekbones, large ears, and low foreheads. Essentially, he thought you could spot a criminal just by looking at them.

While Lombroso deserves credit for being the first to study criminal behaviour scientifically, his methods were seriously problematic. He had no control group to compare his findings and provided zero evidence that physical features actually cause criminality.

His work did challenge the simple idea that criminals are just "evil" people, opening the door for more sophisticated research into genetic and biochemical factors. However, his claims about physical attributes leading to crime remain completely unsupported by modern evidence.

These physiological theories highlight how early criminology was influenced by prejudices and poor research methods. Today's biological theories are much more sophisticated, focusing on brain chemistry, hormones, and genetic predispositions rather than facial features.

Historical Context: Lombroso's work reflects the prejudices of his era - be careful not to judge people based on appearance, as there's no scientific basis for linking physical traits to criminal behaviour.