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27 Dec 2025
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Unit 2 Criminology Coverall Overview
B
Bailie Burnett
@bailieburnett
1 / 10
Unit 2 Structure Overview
This unit covers everything you need to know about criminality theories and social constructions of crime. You'll work through specific assessment criteria (ACs) that build your understanding step by step.
The unit is organised into clear sections: understanding norms versus criminal behaviour (AC 1.1 & 1.2), exploring biological theories of crime (AC 2.1), and evaluating these theories critically (AC 3.2). You'll also examine how social factors influence criminal behaviour and apply your knowledge to real-world scenarios.
Each section includes evaluation points that are crucial for your 6 and 9 mark exam questions. Remember, evaluation appears throughout Topic 2, so you'll be building these critical thinking skills constantly.
Quick Tip: The bracketed numbers (like 3.2) show where evaluation content appears - this helps you spot those all-important analysis points for higher marks!
Understanding Norms, Values and Criminal Behaviour
Norms are the unwritten rules that guide how we behave in specific situations - think using cutlery, wearing shoes, or queueing properly. Values are our deeper beliefs about right and wrong, like respect and politeness.
Here's the key distinction you need to master: criminal behaviour breaks the law, whilst deviant behaviour simply goes against social norms. Something criminal is usually deviant, but deviant acts aren't always criminal. For example, talking loudly on a train is deviant but not criminal.
Criminal behaviour requires two elements: mens rea and actus reas . This is why circumstances matter so much in court cases.
Remember: Crime is socially constructed - it changes over time and across cultures. Homosexuality was illegal until 1967 but is now completely legal in the UK.
How Laws Vary Across Cultures and Time
Laws aren't universal - they're shaped by cultural values and historical context. Polygamy is legal in 58 countries like India and Malaysia, but illegal in the UK and USA because it's seen as violating women's rights.
Cannabis use shows this variation perfectly. Portugal has legalised it for recreational use, whilst Muslim countries and the Philippines maintain strict bans. In the UK, possession can get you 5 years in prison.
Laws also evolve over time due to social pressure and tragic events. The Dunblane massacre in 1996 led to the complete ban of handguns by 1998, following campaigns like Snow Drop that gathered 750,000 signatures.
Gun control laws changed after mass shootings, whilst homosexuality was decriminalised following the Wolfenden Report. Even our understanding of childhood has evolved - 13th century children were treated as "mini adults" and sent to work early, but now child welfare is a fundamental legal principle.
Key Point: Social construction of crime means what's illegal today might be legal tomorrow, and what's criminal here might be perfectly acceptable elsewhere.
Biological Theories: Genetic Evidence
Biological theories suggest that criminal behaviour might be influenced by our genes and physical characteristics. These theories attempt to explain why some people are more likely to commit crimes than others.
Jacobs' XYY theory proposes that males with an extra Y chromosome are "super males" who tend to be more aggressive and violent. These individuals supposedly show explosive tempers, hyperactivity, and antisocial behaviour. Serial killer John Wayne Gacy was speculated to have XYY syndrome.
Twin studies by Christiansen (1977) found that 52% of identical twins both became criminals compared to only 21% of non-identical twins. This suggests genetics play a role, since identical twins share 100% of their DNA.
Adoption studies by Hutchings and Mednick examined 14,000 adopted children and found that boys with criminal convictions often had biological parents with convictions too. This supports the idea that criminal tendencies might be inherited rather than learned from the environment.
Critical Thinking: These studies show correlation, not causation - just because twins both commit crimes doesn't prove genes cause criminality!
Biological Theories: Physical Characteristics
Lombroso's theory was groundbreaking but deeply flawed. He believed criminals were a separate, primitive species identifiable by atavistic traits like high cheekbones, large ears, and low foreheads. Essentially, he thought you could spot a criminal just by looking at them.
While Lombroso deserves credit for being the first to study criminal behaviour scientifically, his methods were seriously problematic. He had no control group to compare his findings and provided zero evidence that physical features actually cause criminality.
His work did challenge the simple idea that criminals are just "evil" people, opening the door for more sophisticated research into genetic and biochemical factors. However, his claims about physical attributes leading to crime remain completely unsupported by modern evidence.
These physiological theories highlight how early criminology was influenced by prejudices and poor research methods. Today's biological theories are much more sophisticated, focusing on brain chemistry, hormones, and genetic predispositions rather than facial features.
Historical Context: Lombroso's work reflects the prejudices of his era - be careful not to judge people based on appearance, as there's no scientific basis for linking physical traits to criminal behaviour.
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This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
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Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
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Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
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Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Unit 2 Criminology Coverall Overview
B
Bailie Burnett
@bailieburnett
Ever wondered why some people turn to crime whilst others don't? WJEC Criminology A-Level Unit 2 explores the fascinating world of criminal behaviour, examining how society defines crime and what biological factors might influence criminal tendencies. This unit will help... Show more
Unit 2 Structure Overview
This unit covers everything you need to know about criminality theories and social constructions of crime. You'll work through specific assessment criteria (ACs) that build your understanding step by step.
The unit is organised into clear sections: understanding norms versus criminal behaviour (AC 1.1 & 1.2), exploring biological theories of crime (AC 2.1), and evaluating these theories critically (AC 3.2). You'll also examine how social factors influence criminal behaviour and apply your knowledge to real-world scenarios.
Each section includes evaluation points that are crucial for your 6 and 9 mark exam questions. Remember, evaluation appears throughout Topic 2, so you'll be building these critical thinking skills constantly.
Quick Tip: The bracketed numbers (like 3.2) show where evaluation content appears - this helps you spot those all-important analysis points for higher marks!
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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Understanding Norms, Values and Criminal Behaviour
Norms are the unwritten rules that guide how we behave in specific situations - think using cutlery, wearing shoes, or queueing properly. Values are our deeper beliefs about right and wrong, like respect and politeness.
Here's the key distinction you need to master: criminal behaviour breaks the law, whilst deviant behaviour simply goes against social norms. Something criminal is usually deviant, but deviant acts aren't always criminal. For example, talking loudly on a train is deviant but not criminal.
Criminal behaviour requires two elements: mens rea and actus reas . This is why circumstances matter so much in court cases.
Remember: Crime is socially constructed - it changes over time and across cultures. Homosexuality was illegal until 1967 but is now completely legal in the UK.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
How Laws Vary Across Cultures and Time
Laws aren't universal - they're shaped by cultural values and historical context. Polygamy is legal in 58 countries like India and Malaysia, but illegal in the UK and USA because it's seen as violating women's rights.
Cannabis use shows this variation perfectly. Portugal has legalised it for recreational use, whilst Muslim countries and the Philippines maintain strict bans. In the UK, possession can get you 5 years in prison.
Laws also evolve over time due to social pressure and tragic events. The Dunblane massacre in 1996 led to the complete ban of handguns by 1998, following campaigns like Snow Drop that gathered 750,000 signatures.
Gun control laws changed after mass shootings, whilst homosexuality was decriminalised following the Wolfenden Report. Even our understanding of childhood has evolved - 13th century children were treated as "mini adults" and sent to work early, but now child welfare is a fundamental legal principle.
Key Point: Social construction of crime means what's illegal today might be legal tomorrow, and what's criminal here might be perfectly acceptable elsewhere.
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Biological Theories: Genetic Evidence
Biological theories suggest that criminal behaviour might be influenced by our genes and physical characteristics. These theories attempt to explain why some people are more likely to commit crimes than others.
Jacobs' XYY theory proposes that males with an extra Y chromosome are "super males" who tend to be more aggressive and violent. These individuals supposedly show explosive tempers, hyperactivity, and antisocial behaviour. Serial killer John Wayne Gacy was speculated to have XYY syndrome.
Twin studies by Christiansen (1977) found that 52% of identical twins both became criminals compared to only 21% of non-identical twins. This suggests genetics play a role, since identical twins share 100% of their DNA.
Adoption studies by Hutchings and Mednick examined 14,000 adopted children and found that boys with criminal convictions often had biological parents with convictions too. This supports the idea that criminal tendencies might be inherited rather than learned from the environment.
Critical Thinking: These studies show correlation, not causation - just because twins both commit crimes doesn't prove genes cause criminality!
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Biological Theories: Physical Characteristics
Lombroso's theory was groundbreaking but deeply flawed. He believed criminals were a separate, primitive species identifiable by atavistic traits like high cheekbones, large ears, and low foreheads. Essentially, he thought you could spot a criminal just by looking at them.
While Lombroso deserves credit for being the first to study criminal behaviour scientifically, his methods were seriously problematic. He had no control group to compare his findings and provided zero evidence that physical features actually cause criminality.
His work did challenge the simple idea that criminals are just "evil" people, opening the door for more sophisticated research into genetic and biochemical factors. However, his claims about physical attributes leading to crime remain completely unsupported by modern evidence.
These physiological theories highlight how early criminology was influenced by prejudices and poor research methods. Today's biological theories are much more sophisticated, focusing on brain chemistry, hormones, and genetic predispositions rather than facial features.
Historical Context: Lombroso's work reflects the prejudices of his era - be careful not to judge people based on appearance, as there's no scientific basis for linking physical traits to criminal behaviour.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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We thought you’d never ask...
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4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user