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26 Dec 2025
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shart
@noteboat69
Organic chemistry reactions might seem overwhelming, but they follow predictable... Show more
Electrophiles are "electron-loving" species that accept electrons, whilst nucleophiles are "nucleus-loving" electron donors. Think of electrophiles as positively charged bullies that steal electrons, and nucleophiles as generous donors ready to share their electrons.
Electrophilic addition occurs when electrophiles attack double bonds in alkenes. For example, when bromine reacts with ethene, the Br-Br molecule breaks apart, and both bromine atoms add across the C=C bond to form dibromoethane.
Nucleophilic substitution follows a simple pattern: one bond breaks at a carbon atom whilst another forms simultaneously. When haloalkanes react with hydroxide ions (OH⁻), the hydroxide replaces the halogen to form alcohols.
Key Tip: Remember that electrophiles are attracted to electron-rich areas (like double bonds), whilst nucleophiles target electron-deficient carbon atoms.
Nucleophilic addition combines both concepts - nucleophiles like cyanide (CN⁻) can add to carbonyl groups, breaking the C=O double bond and forming two new single bonds.
Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution rather than addition because it maintains its stable ring structure. You'll need to know three main halogenation reactions for your exams.
Bromination requires FeBr₃ as a catalyst to polarise the Br-Br bond, creating the Br⁺ electrophile that attacks benzene's electron-rich ring. The reaction produces bromobenzene and HBr as a byproduct.
Chlorination works similarly but uses AlCl₃ as the catalyst to generate Cl⁺ electrophiles from chlorine gas. This follows the same mechanism as bromination.
Iodination is unique because it doesn't need a catalyst - the I-I bond is naturally long and weak, making it easily polarisable. This makes iodination the most straightforward halogenation reaction.
Exam Focus: Always remember that the catalyst is regenerated at the end of each reaction, which is why only small amounts are needed.
Friedel-Crafts reactions are powerful tools for adding carbon-containing groups to benzene rings. These reactions require reflux conditions and AlCl₃ catalysts to work effectively.
Alkylation adds alkyl groups (like methyl) to benzene using haloalkanes such as chloromethane. The AlCl₃ catalyst helps form carbocation electrophiles (CH₃⁺) that attack the benzene ring, producing methylbenzene plus HCl.
Acylation introduces acyl groups containing the C=O functional group. When acid chlorides react with benzene in the presence of AlCl₃, they form ketones attached to the benzene ring.
Important: Acylation is often preferred over alkylation because it avoids carbocation rearrangements that can give unexpected products.
Both reactions follow the same general mechanism as other electrophilic substitutions, but they're particularly useful for building complex organic molecules from simple starting materials.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
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This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
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Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
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Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
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Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
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The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
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In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
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very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
shart
@noteboat69
Organic chemistry reactions might seem overwhelming, but they follow predictable patterns that you can master. Understanding electrophilic and nucleophilic reactions is essential for your A-level chemistry success, as these mechanisms explain how most organic compounds are formed and modified.
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Electrophiles are "electron-loving" species that accept electrons, whilst nucleophiles are "nucleus-loving" electron donors. Think of electrophiles as positively charged bullies that steal electrons, and nucleophiles as generous donors ready to share their electrons.
Electrophilic addition occurs when electrophiles attack double bonds in alkenes. For example, when bromine reacts with ethene, the Br-Br molecule breaks apart, and both bromine atoms add across the C=C bond to form dibromoethane.
Nucleophilic substitution follows a simple pattern: one bond breaks at a carbon atom whilst another forms simultaneously. When haloalkanes react with hydroxide ions (OH⁻), the hydroxide replaces the halogen to form alcohols.
Key Tip: Remember that electrophiles are attracted to electron-rich areas (like double bonds), whilst nucleophiles target electron-deficient carbon atoms.
Nucleophilic addition combines both concepts - nucleophiles like cyanide (CN⁻) can add to carbonyl groups, breaking the C=O double bond and forming two new single bonds.
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Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution rather than addition because it maintains its stable ring structure. You'll need to know three main halogenation reactions for your exams.
Bromination requires FeBr₃ as a catalyst to polarise the Br-Br bond, creating the Br⁺ electrophile that attacks benzene's electron-rich ring. The reaction produces bromobenzene and HBr as a byproduct.
Chlorination works similarly but uses AlCl₃ as the catalyst to generate Cl⁺ electrophiles from chlorine gas. This follows the same mechanism as bromination.
Iodination is unique because it doesn't need a catalyst - the I-I bond is naturally long and weak, making it easily polarisable. This makes iodination the most straightforward halogenation reaction.
Exam Focus: Always remember that the catalyst is regenerated at the end of each reaction, which is why only small amounts are needed.
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Friedel-Crafts reactions are powerful tools for adding carbon-containing groups to benzene rings. These reactions require reflux conditions and AlCl₃ catalysts to work effectively.
Alkylation adds alkyl groups (like methyl) to benzene using haloalkanes such as chloromethane. The AlCl₃ catalyst helps form carbocation electrophiles (CH₃⁺) that attack the benzene ring, producing methylbenzene plus HCl.
Acylation introduces acyl groups containing the C=O functional group. When acid chlorides react with benzene in the presence of AlCl₃, they form ketones attached to the benzene ring.
Important: Acylation is often preferred over alkylation because it avoids carbocation rearrangements that can give unexpected products.
Both reactions follow the same general mechanism as other electrophilic substitutions, but they're particularly useful for building complex organic molecules from simple starting materials.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
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Explore the reactivity and mechanisms of benzene and phenol, including electrophilic substitution reactions, delocalization of electrons, and key comparisons between alkenes and arenes. This summary covers essential concepts such as nitration, halogenation, and Friedel-Crafts reactions, providing a comprehensive understanding for students studying aromatic compounds.
ChemistryExplore the key concepts of aromatic chemistry, including the structure and reactivity of benzene, electrophilic substitution mechanisms, and the role of delocalized electrons. This summary covers nitration and Friedel-Crafts reactions, comparing the reactivity of alkenes and arenes, and the unique properties of phenols. Ideal for A-Level organic chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore the key electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene, including nitration, bromination, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation. This summary covers the mechanisms, catalysts, and products involved in each reaction, providing a clear understanding of benzene's reactivity in organic chemistry.
ChemistryExplore the mechanisms of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes, including the formation of alcohols and amines. Understand the role of nucleophiles, the conditions for elimination reactions, and the impact of ozone depletion caused by CFCs. This summary covers key concepts such as halide ions, reaction mechanisms, and radical substitution, essential for AQA AS Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore the mechanisms of halogenoalkanes, focusing on nucleophilic substitution (SN1 and SN2) and elimination reactions. This summary covers key concepts such as the formation of halogenoalkanes, the role of halide ions, and the conditions influencing reaction pathways. Ideal for CIE revision.
ChemistryExplore the detailed mechanisms of acylation reactions in organic chemistry, focusing on acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides. This summary covers nucleophilic addition-elimination processes, hydrolysis reactions, and the formation of carboxylic acids and amides. Ideal for AQA A Level Chemistry students seeking to understand the intricacies of organic mechanisms.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology