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Responding to change (a2 only)
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Ever wondered what atoms are actually made of and how... Show more







Scientists spent centuries piecing together what atoms actually look like inside. John Dalton thought atoms were like tiny, indivisible balls, but JJ Thomson proved him wrong by discovering electrons and proposing the "plum pudding model." Then Ernest Rutherford's famous gold foil experiment revealed that atoms have a dense nucleus, leading Niels Bohr to develop the idea of fixed electron orbitals.
Inside every atom, you'll find three key subatomic particles: protons , neutrons (charge 0, mass 1), and electrons . The mass number (A) tells you the total protons and neutrons, whilst the atomic number (Z) gives you just the protons.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons - same protons, different mass. This is where mass spectrometry becomes brilliant for identifying molecules. The process involves ionisation (adding charge), acceleration (giving particles equal kinetic energy), and detection (measuring abundance).
Quick Tip: Remember that lighter particles travel faster in mass spectrometry because they all have the same kinetic energy!

Mass spectrometry works by accelerating ionised molecules through a magnetic field - lighter particles zip through faster because they all share the same kinetic energy. The time of flight depends on the particle's mass, making this technique perfect for identifying unknown compounds.
When you analyse a mass spectrum, the x-axis shows mass/charge ratio whilst the y-axis displays percentage abundance. The molecular ion peak (the highest mass peak) represents your original molecule and is crucial for identification.
You'll often spot smaller peaks around the main peak - these come from isotopes of the same molecule. Meanwhile, significantly lighter peaks result from fragmentation when molecules break apart inside the spectrometer.
Relative atomic mass calculations use the weighted average formula: Σ(isotope abundance × isotope mass) ÷ Σ(isotope abundance). This accounts for all isotopes naturally present in a sample.
Exam Tip: The molecular ion peak is always the furthest right peak - this gives you the molecule's actual mass!

Electrons don't just randomly orbit the nucleus - they're organised in electron shells (given the symbol 'n'). The closer to the nucleus (lower n value), the lower the energy. Each shell contains sub-shells, and amazingly, a shell with value n contains exactly n sub-shells.
Sub-shells are made up of orbitals, with each orbital holding a maximum of two electrons. There are four types: s (1 orbital), p (3 orbitals), d (5 orbitals), and f (7 orbitals). These correspond to different blocks on the periodic table.
The s orbitals are spherical, whilst p orbitals have a dumbbell shape. Understanding these shapes helps explain chemical bonding later on. Each type of sub-shell can hold different numbers of electrons: s holds 2, p holds 6, d holds 10, and f holds 14.
When writing electron configurations, you'll use notation like 1s²2s²2p⁶ for neon. The superscript numbers tell you how many electrons are in each sub-shell.
Memory Trick: The periodic table is your best friend for electron configurations - just follow the blocks from left to right!

Getting electron configurations right means following three crucial rules. First, fill the lowest energy orbitals before moving to higher ones. Second, electrons prefer to occupy separate orbitals with the same spin before pairing up. Third, no orbital can hold more than two electrons.
Electron spins are represented by arrows pointing up or down - electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins for stability. This is why we draw orbital diagrams with arrows showing electron arrangements.
There's a tricky bit with transition metals: the 4s sub-shell actually has lower energy than 3d, so electrons fill 4s first. However, when writing configurations for transition metal ions, electrons are removed from 4s before 3d because 3d becomes lower in energy once occupied.
Some atoms prefer unusual configurations for extra stability. Chromium, for example, adopts 3d⁵4s¹ rather than 3d⁴4s² because having all d orbitals half-filled is more stable.
Pro Tip: Always remember that 4s fills before 3d, but empties before 3d when forming ions!

First ionisation energy is the minimum energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms. It's measured in kJ/mol and tells us loads about atomic structure. The equation looks like: Na(g) → Na⁺(g) + e⁻.
Moving across a period, ionisation energy increases because atomic radius decreases and nuclear charge increases - electrons are held more tightly. Down a group, it decreases due to increased atomic radius and electron shielding reducing the nuclear pull on outer electrons.
There are some fascinating exceptions in Period 3. Aluminium has lower ionisation energy than magnesium because Al's outer electron is in a 3p orbital, which is higher energy and further from the nucleus than Mg's 3s electron.
Similarly, sulfur has lower ionisation energy than phosphorus. In sulfur's 3p⁴ configuration, two electrons must pair up in the same orbital, and their mutual repulsion makes one easier to remove compared to phosphorus's unpaired 3p electrons.
Key Insight: Exceptions in ionisation energy trends provide excellent evidence for electron sub-shells and orbital theory!

Looking at successive ionisation energies for any element reveals dramatic jumps that provide brilliant evidence for electron shells. When you plot ionisation energy against the number of electrons removed, you'll see gradual increases followed by massive leaps.
These large increases occur when you start removing electrons from a shell much closer to the nucleus. For example, removing sodium's first electron (3s¹) is relatively easy, but the second electron comes from the 2p⁶ shell - much closer to the nucleus and requiring vastly more energy.
The pattern perfectly matches our orbital theory: electrons in the same shell have similar ionisation energies, whilst electrons in inner shells require dramatically more energy to remove. This experimental evidence convinced scientists that electrons occupy distinct energy levels.
You can use these patterns to identify which group an unknown element belongs to by counting how many electrons can be removed before hitting the first major energy jump.
Exam Gold: Successive ionisation energy graphs are perfect evidence that electron shells actually exist - the jumps prove it!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
bv
@bv
Ever wondered what atoms are actually made of and how scientists figured it all out? From Dalton's "indivisible" atoms to today's complex orbital models, atomic structure reveals the fascinating building blocks of everything around you. Understanding these concepts is crucial... Show more

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Scientists spent centuries piecing together what atoms actually look like inside. John Dalton thought atoms were like tiny, indivisible balls, but JJ Thomson proved him wrong by discovering electrons and proposing the "plum pudding model." Then Ernest Rutherford's famous gold foil experiment revealed that atoms have a dense nucleus, leading Niels Bohr to develop the idea of fixed electron orbitals.
Inside every atom, you'll find three key subatomic particles: protons , neutrons (charge 0, mass 1), and electrons . The mass number (A) tells you the total protons and neutrons, whilst the atomic number (Z) gives you just the protons.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons - same protons, different mass. This is where mass spectrometry becomes brilliant for identifying molecules. The process involves ionisation (adding charge), acceleration (giving particles equal kinetic energy), and detection (measuring abundance).
Quick Tip: Remember that lighter particles travel faster in mass spectrometry because they all have the same kinetic energy!

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Improve your grades
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Mass spectrometry works by accelerating ionised molecules through a magnetic field - lighter particles zip through faster because they all share the same kinetic energy. The time of flight depends on the particle's mass, making this technique perfect for identifying unknown compounds.
When you analyse a mass spectrum, the x-axis shows mass/charge ratio whilst the y-axis displays percentage abundance. The molecular ion peak (the highest mass peak) represents your original molecule and is crucial for identification.
You'll often spot smaller peaks around the main peak - these come from isotopes of the same molecule. Meanwhile, significantly lighter peaks result from fragmentation when molecules break apart inside the spectrometer.
Relative atomic mass calculations use the weighted average formula: Σ(isotope abundance × isotope mass) ÷ Σ(isotope abundance). This accounts for all isotopes naturally present in a sample.
Exam Tip: The molecular ion peak is always the furthest right peak - this gives you the molecule's actual mass!

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Electrons don't just randomly orbit the nucleus - they're organised in electron shells (given the symbol 'n'). The closer to the nucleus (lower n value), the lower the energy. Each shell contains sub-shells, and amazingly, a shell with value n contains exactly n sub-shells.
Sub-shells are made up of orbitals, with each orbital holding a maximum of two electrons. There are four types: s (1 orbital), p (3 orbitals), d (5 orbitals), and f (7 orbitals). These correspond to different blocks on the periodic table.
The s orbitals are spherical, whilst p orbitals have a dumbbell shape. Understanding these shapes helps explain chemical bonding later on. Each type of sub-shell can hold different numbers of electrons: s holds 2, p holds 6, d holds 10, and f holds 14.
When writing electron configurations, you'll use notation like 1s²2s²2p⁶ for neon. The superscript numbers tell you how many electrons are in each sub-shell.
Memory Trick: The periodic table is your best friend for electron configurations - just follow the blocks from left to right!

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Getting electron configurations right means following three crucial rules. First, fill the lowest energy orbitals before moving to higher ones. Second, electrons prefer to occupy separate orbitals with the same spin before pairing up. Third, no orbital can hold more than two electrons.
Electron spins are represented by arrows pointing up or down - electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins for stability. This is why we draw orbital diagrams with arrows showing electron arrangements.
There's a tricky bit with transition metals: the 4s sub-shell actually has lower energy than 3d, so electrons fill 4s first. However, when writing configurations for transition metal ions, electrons are removed from 4s before 3d because 3d becomes lower in energy once occupied.
Some atoms prefer unusual configurations for extra stability. Chromium, for example, adopts 3d⁵4s¹ rather than 3d⁴4s² because having all d orbitals half-filled is more stable.
Pro Tip: Always remember that 4s fills before 3d, but empties before 3d when forming ions!

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First ionisation energy is the minimum energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms. It's measured in kJ/mol and tells us loads about atomic structure. The equation looks like: Na(g) → Na⁺(g) + e⁻.
Moving across a period, ionisation energy increases because atomic radius decreases and nuclear charge increases - electrons are held more tightly. Down a group, it decreases due to increased atomic radius and electron shielding reducing the nuclear pull on outer electrons.
There are some fascinating exceptions in Period 3. Aluminium has lower ionisation energy than magnesium because Al's outer electron is in a 3p orbital, which is higher energy and further from the nucleus than Mg's 3s electron.
Similarly, sulfur has lower ionisation energy than phosphorus. In sulfur's 3p⁴ configuration, two electrons must pair up in the same orbital, and their mutual repulsion makes one easier to remove compared to phosphorus's unpaired 3p electrons.
Key Insight: Exceptions in ionisation energy trends provide excellent evidence for electron sub-shells and orbital theory!

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Looking at successive ionisation energies for any element reveals dramatic jumps that provide brilliant evidence for electron shells. When you plot ionisation energy against the number of electrons removed, you'll see gradual increases followed by massive leaps.
These large increases occur when you start removing electrons from a shell much closer to the nucleus. For example, removing sodium's first electron (3s¹) is relatively easy, but the second electron comes from the 2p⁶ shell - much closer to the nucleus and requiring vastly more energy.
The pattern perfectly matches our orbital theory: electrons in the same shell have similar ionisation energies, whilst electrons in inner shells require dramatically more energy to remove. This experimental evidence convinced scientists that electrons occupy distinct energy levels.
You can use these patterns to identify which group an unknown element belongs to by counting how many electrons can be removed before hitting the first major energy jump.
Exam Gold: Successive ionisation energy graphs are perfect evidence that electron shells actually exist - the jumps prove it!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Explore the fundamentals of atomic orbitals and electron configurations, including key concepts such as quantum numbers, the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. This summary provides a clear overview of s, p, d, and f orbitals, their capacities, and the principles governing electron arrangement within atoms.
Explore the structure and types of atomic orbitals, including the principles of quantum numbers and electron configuration. This summary covers the Pauli Exclusion Principle, the shapes of s, p, d, and f orbitals, and their maximum electron capacities. Ideal for students studying electronic structure in chemistry.
Explore the fundamental concepts of atomic structure, including Dalton's atomic theory, Thomson's Plum Pudding model, Rutherford's nuclear model, and Bohr's electron orbits. Understand ionization energy trends, isotopes, and the mass spectrometer process. This summary is essential for AQA Year 1 Chemistry students.
Explore the fundamentals of atomic structure, electron configuration, and ionization energies. This summary covers key concepts such as the Aufbau principle, Hund's rule, and the Pauli exclusion principle, along with detailed explanations of electron orbitals and their significance in ionization processes. Ideal for students studying physical chemistry.
Explore the fundamentals of atomic structure, relative atomic mass, and isotopes in this detailed summary. Understand concepts like average atomic mass, ionization, and the role of mass spectrometry in determining percentage abundance. Ideal for A Level Chemistry students preparing for exams.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user