Electrophilic Addition Mechanisms

This page introduces the concept of electrophilic addition, a key reaction type in A Level Chemistry. It focuses on the reaction of alkenes with hydrogen bromide $HBr$.

The mechanism is illustrated step-by-step, showing how the pi bond in the alkene is attacked by the electrophilic hydrogen from HBr. This results in the formation of a carbocation intermediate, which is then attacked by the bromide ion to form the final product.

Example: The reaction of 2-methylpropene with HBr is shown, demonstrating how the more substituted carbon forms the carbocation, leading to the major product.

Vocabulary: Electrophilic addition is a type of reaction where an electrophile $electron-loving species$ adds to a double bond in an alkene.

This page provides a solid foundation for understanding electrophilic addition mechanisms, which is crucial for answering AQA A Level Chemistry Alkenes Exam Questions.

Electrophilic Addition with Sulphuric Acid and Elimination Reactions

This page expands on electrophilic addition reactions by introducing the reaction of alkenes with sulphuric acid. It also covers elimination reactions involving halogenoalkanes and alcohols.

The electrophilic addition of sulphuric acid to an alkene is shown step-by-step. The mechanism illustrates how the hydrogen ion from sulphuric acid acts as the electrophile, attacking the double bond and forming a carbocation intermediate. This is followed by the addition of the hydrogen sulphate ion.

Definition: An elimination reaction is a type of organic reaction where two substituents are removed from a molecule to form a multiple bond.

The page also covers an elimination reaction involving halogenoalkanes with ethanolic hydroxide ions. This reaction is important in the synthesis of alkenes from halogenoalkanes.

Highlight: Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for answering questions on alkenes reactions with sulphuric acid in AQA exams.

This information is vital for students studying AQA A Level Chemistry Alkenes and preparing for related exam questions.

Elimination Reactions: Acid-Catalyzed Dehydration of Alcohols

This page focuses on the elimination reaction that converts alcohols to alkenes using an acid catalyst, specifically concentrated sulphuric acid. This reaction is known as acid-catalyzed dehydration.

The mechanism is presented step-by-step, showing how the alcohol is protonated by the acid catalyst, followed by the loss of water to form a carbocation intermediate. The final step involves the loss of a proton to form the alkene product.

Example: The dehydration of 2-propanol to form propene is illustrated, demonstrating the E1 elimination mechanism.

Vocabulary: Dehydration refers to the removal of water from a compound.

This reaction is reversible, with the reverse reaction being the hydration of alkenes to form alcohols. The acid catalyst $H₂SO₄$ is regenerated at the end of the reaction.

Understanding this mechanism is essential for answering questions about alkenes A level chemistry and the interconversion of organic compounds.

Nucleophilic Addition and Nucleophilic Substitution

This page covers two important reaction types: nucleophilic addition and nucleophilic substitution.

The nucleophilic addition reaction shown is the hydration of ethene to form ethanol, catalyzed by an acid. This reaction is the reverse of the dehydration reaction covered on the previous page.

Definition: Nucleophilic addition is a reaction where a nucleophile adds to a carbon-carbon double bond or a carbon-oxygen double bond.

The page also introduces nucleophilic substitution, specifically the reaction of haloalkanes with hydroxide ions. This reaction is important in organic synthesis for converting haloalkanes to alcohols.

Highlight: Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for answering questions on nucleophilic substitution A Level Chemistry.

The mechanisms presented on this page are fundamental to organic chemistry and are frequently tested in AQA A Level Chemistry mechanisms exam questions.

Nucleophilic Substitution: Reactions with Ammonia

This page delves deeper into nucleophilic substitution reactions, focusing on the reactions of haloalkanes with ammonia and amines.

The mechanism for the reaction of a haloalkane with ammonia to form a primary amine is illustrated. This reaction is an example of an SN2 $bimolecular nucleophilic substitution$ mechanism.

Example: The reaction of bromoethane with ammonia to form ethylamine is shown.

The page also covers the formation of secondary amines through the reaction of a haloalkane with a primary amine. This demonstrates how the product of the first reaction can act as a nucleophile for further substitution.

Vocabulary: A primary amine has the general formula RNH₂, where R is an alkyl group.

Understanding these reactions is essential for answering questions on nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes in AQA A Level Chemistry exams.

Nucleophilic Substitution: Formation of Tertiary Amines

This page continues the discussion of nucleophilic substitution reactions, focusing on the formation of tertiary amines.

The mechanism for the formation of a tertiary amine through the reaction of a haloalkane with a secondary amine is illustrated. This reaction follows the same SN2 mechanism as the formation of primary and secondary amines.

Example: The formation of triethylamine from bromoethane and diethylamine is shown.

Definition: A tertiary amine has the general formula R₃N, where R represents alkyl groups.

This page completes the series on amine formation through nucleophilic substitution, providing a comprehensive overview of these reactions. Understanding the progression from primary to secondary to tertiary amines is crucial for answering AQA A Level Chemistry Nucleophilic Substitution Questions.

Nucleophilic Addition to Carbonyl Compounds

This page introduces nucleophilic addition reactions to carbonyl compounds, specifically focusing on the addition of cyanide ions to ketones.

The mechanism for the nucleophilic addition of cyanide to propanone $acetone$ is illustrated step-by-step. This reaction results in the formation of a cyanohydrin.

Vocabulary: A cyanohydrin is an organic compound containing a hydroxy $-OH$ group and a cyano $-CN$ group on the same carbon atom.

The page also covers the role of acid in this reaction, showing how a proton source $either water or a weak acid$ is necessary to complete the mechanism.

Highlight: Understanding nucleophilic addition to carbonyls is crucial for answering questions on A Level chemistry mechanisms exam questions.

This reaction type is an important part of carbonyl chemistry in the AQA A Level Chemistry syllabus.

Nucleophilic Addition-Elimination Reactions

This page covers nucleophilic addition-elimination reactions, which are important in the chemistry of carbonyl compounds.

Two methods are presented:

1. Nucleophilic addition followed by elimination of water
2. Nucleophilic addition followed by elimination of HCl

The mechanisms for both methods are illustrated using the example of a reaction between a ketone and ethanol.

Definition: A nucleophilic addition-elimination reaction involves the addition of a nucleophile to a carbonyl compound, followed by the elimination of a leaving group.

Example: The reaction of propanone with ethanol to form an acetal is shown for both methods.

Understanding these mechanisms is essential for answering questions on carbonyl chemistry in AQA A Level Chemistry mechanisms exam questions.

Nucleophilic Addition-Elimination with Ammonia and Amines

This page continues the discussion of nucleophilic addition-elimination reactions, focusing on reactions with ammonia and amines.

The mechanisms for the reaction of a ketone with ammonia and with ethylamine are illustrated. These reactions result in the formation of imines and enamines, respectively.

Vocabulary: An imine is a compound containing a carbon-nitrogen double bond, while an enamine is an unsaturated compound containing both an alkene and an amine functional group.

Example: The reaction of ethanal with ammonia to form an imine, and with ethylamine to form an enamine, are shown.

These reactions are important in organic synthesis and are often tested in A Level chemistry mechanisms exam questions.

Electrophilic Substitution: Nitration

This page introduces electrophilic substitution reactions, specifically focusing on the nitration of benzene.

The mechanism for the nitration of benzene is presented, including the formation of the nitronium ion $NO₂⁺$ electrophile from nitric and sulphuric acids.

Definition: Electrophilic substitution is a reaction where an electrophile replaces an atom or group in an aromatic compound.

Highlight: Understanding the formation of the electrophile is crucial for answering questions on AQA a level Chemistry all mechanisms and conditions.

The page also shows the regeneration of the sulphuric acid catalyst, completing the catalytic cycle.

This reaction is a key example of aromatic electrophilic substitution in the AQA A Level Chemistry syllabus.