HIGHER BIOLOGY (UNIT 2)

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inside & high reaction rate. Activation Energy chemical reactions can involve the build or break down. op Ea is the energy required for a reaction to take place. Adding enzymes lower the fa needed for a reaction to take place. this means biochemical reactions are able to proceed rapidly at relativley low. temps say enzymes Shape * the active site is not rigid * It is flexible * when substrate joins the active site it changes slightly. * This makes the substrate pit better with the enzyme. (Induced fit) chances of * this increases taking place. Affinity * is the tendancy for the substrate to bind with the active site the reaction * the strength of the attraction between. molecules * substrates = high affinity products = how affinity * Innibition An innhibitor is a substance which decreases the rate of reaction. - competitive 2 non-competitive feedback Competitive innhibitor * = molecules have similar shape to the substrate molecule and compete for the available active site on the enzyme. an enzyme controlled. as the active site is now blocked the bind -reducing the substrate can not reaction Over-coming •without inhibitor with inhibitor Substrate concentration Max rate of reaction By increasing concentration of substrate it can reverse the effect of a competitive. inhibitor reaction olled. ate ive Non-competitive inhibition. * bind away from the active site but eh the shape of the active site preventing substrate from binding. مملننمنس * cannot be reversed by increasing substroc concentration. reaction rate of Substance concentration Feedback inhibition * As the concentration of the end product buil some of it binds to the enzyme... Metabolite A ( enzyme d * this slows down the reaction in the pathwo prevents further synthesis of metabolite D or e product. normal enzyme competitive Metabolite B non-competitive enzyme Ⓒ •Metabolite C enzyme 3 Metabolite D Some of Metabolite binds to enzyme I stop it working. respiration * cellular respiration is a series of metabollic pathways that release energy from food producing ATP ATP Adenosine ADP+P * Adenosine * when the bond is broken energy is released. * ires gy ATP Pi-Pi Pi releases energy -ADP+Pi- Phosphorylation = ATP takes part in a process called phosphorylation. - This is an enzyme controlled reaction where a phosphate group is added to a molecule Mitoch * G * Ci *E The * * * * pollic d Glycolysis Mitochondria * Glycolosis-Cytoplasm * Citric acid cycle - matrix of mitochondr * Electron trapport chain - inner membrau The Stages: Stage 1: Doesn't require Oxygen (anearobic). * controlled. епчуте * 2 phases Phase 1 - Energy Investment * Requires ATP to phosphorolate the intermediates I glucose Phase 2- Energy Day Off * 4 ATP molecules are formed. this results in net gain.... Glucose ↓ (pho Intermedia Pho NAD) NADHe Pyruvat į 2 ATP Net gair * Dehydrogenase enzyme removes hydrog. ions & electrons from molecules. * They are passed to coenzyme NAD & forms * H ions I electrons needed later when pr ATP molecules. * If oxygen is present, pyruvate progresses to citric acid cycle. Citric actd cycle. Stage 2: Foxygen needed. •series of dehydrogenase enzyme controlled of ATP I release of CO ² + Hydrogen Pyruvate is converted to -cetyl I combines with Denzyme A to form -cetyl coenzyme A. -etyl group forms with oxaloacetate to form citrate CO² is released I ATP is produced Pyruvate Acetyl & coenzyme A. ↓ Acetyl coenzyme A ↑ oxaloacetate 2 200² ADP+P 3NAD 3NADH ATP Dehydrogenase enzymes remove more Hydrogen com I electrons. that pass to NAD to form NADH citrate high energy electrons are passed to the election transport chain. علك Stage xoxy * inn *USE NA * Th N *a ch * re A electron trans Stage 3 * Oxygen needed. *inner mitochondrial membrane. * Uses H ions I electrons from NADH → ATP + H₂O * The hydrogen ions I electrons from NADH are passed on to the E.T.C. * as the electrons move along the chain the energy. is released. * This pumps H ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. from the Matrix to inner mitochondrial space. * Hions flow back through the protein ATP synthase I into. the inner membrane. * This produces 36 ATP * H cons combine with electrons. I oxygen forming H₂0 سم Fermentation when oxygen * occurs after glycolosis is not present / available. * Doesnt generate ATP after glycolosis * Less efficient Animals: Plants: Glucose ↓ GATP 2 Pyruvate without 02 ↑ with 02 Lactate Glucose ↓ GZATP Pyruvate ↓ Ethanol + CO₂ metamolde pate Comparison of metabolic rate * birds I mamals have higher metabolic rate than amphibians, reptiles & fish. *they have diferent circulatory systems * Complex system- have higher metabolic rate. that makes it eficient at getting oxygen to tissue. Circulatory System * heart * Blood vessels. * Blood Birds & Mammals * 2 Atria * 2 ventricle oxygen no oxygen Pulmonary < Artery vena Cava Seperated by septum. * Complete double circulatory system, Blood moves through the heart twice in each circuit * blood doesnt mix Pulmanary vein Lungs 5 Heart C Body Organs aorta m Am * * nary metabolie Amphibians & Reptiles. * uncomplete double circulatory system. * 2 atria * 1 ventricle * blood from both atrium is passed into a single ventricle * Blood mixes * not as much oxygen being passed through the body. * much harder to maintain high metabolic rate Fish Linke * fish have a single curculatory system * 1 atrium * 1 ventricle * Blood passes through the heart once. pate * blood is sent to gills at high preasure to obtain oxygen from water * blood is delivered to capillaries at low preasure. nigh preasure oxygen to booky tissue Longs skin organs oxygen. No oxygen high preas. gülls -ventricle -Atriur body tis capillary etabolic rate Conformers I Regulators metabolic rate is affected by external ability of an organism to maintain its abiotic factors like the animals e plants adapt by avoidance, conforming regulating. Conformers } ure organisms whoes internal env dependant on their external env. PH, salinity, temprature ney cannot alter their normal metabdic -ate by physiological means. sea bass (conformer) env temp °C env * as the external increases the conformers. internal enu increases. Beg temp C