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Infection and response
Organisation
Cell biology
Biological molecules
Homeostasis and response
Responding to change (a2 only)
Energy transfers (a2 only)
The control of gene expression (a-level only)
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
Cells
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1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
Inter-war germany
World war one
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
World war two & the holocaust
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
2j america: a nation divided, c1845-1877
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
The fight for female suffrage
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
Britain: 1509 -1745
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29/03/2023
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Aerobic Respiration The splitting of respiratory substrate to release carbon dioxide as a waste product and reuniting of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen with a large amount of energy. Respiration is a multistep process with each step controlled and catalysed by a specific intracellular enzyme -ANGlycolysisis- This is the first process of both forms of respiration and it occurs in the cytoplasm. NADH Glucose 2 ↓ GATP Pyruvate NADH < 2 Lactate (Anaerobic)! THE LINK REACTION RESPIRATION GNADH COA 502 Acetyl CoA (Aerobic). Pyruvate DIG Acetyl ColA r In this process a molecule of glucose is phosphorylated to produce 2 pyruvafe molecules, 2 NADH molecules and a net production of 2 ATP molecules. The next stage is the link reaction, where pyruvate is converted to acetyl which binds to Coenzyme d ANAEROBIC This occurs when the concentration of oxygen is low. ATP production is Still needed but this cannot be done by aridative phosphorylation as there is no oxygen to act as a final acceptor. > In order for some ATP to be made, glycolysis continues. >In mammais, pyruvate is converted to lactate to act as a hydrogen acceptor to allow NADH to be reoxidised into NAD. Lactate can then be converted back into pyruvate in the liver when oxygen levels rise again. Yeast + plants use alcoholic fermentation to enable glycolysis to continue. In this process, pyruvate is de carboxylated to ethanal which is then reduced to ethanol. This is an irreversible reaction. Acetyl coff NÃO In this process, NAD is reduced to NADH and CO₂ is produced by NADH ·NADH carboxylation of pyruvate NAD FADH I coenzyme d Oxaloacetate (40). 2 CO₂ 3...
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NADH I FADH 4 carbon compound oxaloacetate FAD MOP+ Pi Coenzyme A delivers acetyl to the Krebs Cycle where ATP ² glucose is oxidised, producing co₂, ATP, NADH, and FADH. Each glucose molecule causes the cycle to turn twice so for each glucase we produce 400₂14 MADH, 2 FADH and 2 ATP. These ATP molecules are produced vid substrate level phosphorylation. Where do the products go? THE KREBS NADH CUCLE NAD CO₂ •Reduced in next link reaction. Regenerated for next krebs cycle Released-waste product used in oxidative phosphorylation COM 6-Carbon compound citrate C0₂ -NAD NADH 5-carbon compound OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION H+ Ht Ht Ht H+ NADHNAD RQ H+ Cyt c Ht H+ 2H+0₂4₂0 There is a theoretical yeild of 38 ATP per glucose, but this is rarely achieved as the inner mitochondrial membrane is 'Leaky'. Pyruvate also requires ATP for active transport. Respiratory substrates include carbs, lipids and proteins which release varied energy, depending on the number of hydrogens. RQ = Respiratory Quotient, this can be measured to determine which respiratory substrate is used: - Co₂ produced O2 consumed Carbs=1 upids=0-8 proteins = 0.9 4+ H+ ATPase Ht H¹ ADP Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of which ATP is synthesised in the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. This generates the majority of ATP. ↳ Reduced coenzymes (NADH + FADH) carry Ht and e to the electron transport chain which is in the inner mitochondrial membrane. LElectrons are carried from one electron carrier to another in a series of redox reactions →→ the electron carrier which passes the electron on is oxidised whereas the electron carrier that recieves the electron is reduced. The energy provided by the electrons is used to move hydrogen cions across the inner membrane into the intermembrane space. As a result, the concentration of Hi* ions is high in the intermembrane space. This process occurs as the inner membrane is impermeable to H. ↳ Hydrogen ions diffuse into the matrix down an electrochemical gradient through Aspase ↳ ATP is produced on stalked particles using ATP synthase Here, oxygen acts as the final acceptor for Ht. H+ ATP ATP Synthase