These biology notes cover some of the most fundamental processes... Show more
Biology86 views·Updated May 17, 2026·13 pagesGCSE Biology Edexcel Key Concepts Notes
Onela Tissera@onela_tis
1 / 10
1
of 10
Stem Cells
Ever wondered how your body repairs cuts or how plants keep growing their entire lives? Stem cells are basically nature's ultimate multitool - they're undifferentiated cells that haven't picked a job yet, so they can become almost any type of cell your body needs.
You'll find stem cells in three main places. Plant meristems contain stem cells that can become any plant cell throughout the plant's life, which is why plants never stop growing. In humans, adult stem cells live in your bone marrow and other tissues, constantly replacing worn-out cells and fixing damage. Embryonic stem cells are the most versatile - they can become literally any cell type needed to build a complete organism.
The really exciting bit is how we can use stem cells medically. They're already helping treat Parkinson's disease, diabetes, and severe burns by replacing damaged cells. Therapeutic cloning creates embryos with the same DNA as the patient, preventing rejection issues.
Quick Tip: Remember the key difference - embryonic stem cells can become ANY cell type, while adult stem cells are more limited but still incredibly useful for repairs.
2
of 10
Cell Division
Your body pulls off an incredible feat millions of times every day - creating perfect copies of cells through mitosis. This process is part of the cell cycle, which is basically your cells' way of growing, repairing damage, and reproducing.
The cell cycle has three main stages. During interphase, cells bulk up by making extra ribosomes and mitochondria, plus they copy all their chromosomes so each new cell gets a complete set. Mitosis is where the action happens - chromosomes line up, get pulled apart, and the nucleus splits in two. Finally, cytokinesis divides everything else, creating two identical diploid cells.
Here's the clever part: mitosis has four phases you need to know. Prophase (chromosomes coil up tightly), metaphase (they line up in the middle), anaphase (they get yanked to opposite ends), and telophase (two new nuclei form). Each phase flows seamlessly into the next.
Memory Trick: Think "PMAT" - Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Like a doormat, but for cell division!
3
of 10
Cell Division Types
Not all cell division is created equal - your body actually uses two completely different methods depending on what it's trying to achieve. Mitosis creates identical copies for growth and repair, while meiosis creates unique gametes for reproduction.
Meiosis is much more complex because it needs to create sex cells with exactly half the normal chromosomes. It involves two rounds of division, starting with chromosome replication, then two separate splits that create four haploid cells (each with 23 chromosomes in humans). These genetically different gametes ensure every baby is unique.
During sexual reproduction, male and female gametes fuse during fertilisation, restoring the full chromosome count (46 in humans). The fertilised cell then divides by mitosis to grow into an embryo. Asexual reproduction skips all this complexity - it only needs one parent, uses mitosis exclusively, and produces identical clones.
Key Point: Sexual reproduction = variety and survival advantages. Asexual reproduction = quick and efficient, but less adaptable to change.
4
of 10
Enzymes
Think of enzymes as your body's personal trainers - they're biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by giving them exactly the right conditions to succeed. Without enzymes, the chemical reactions keeping you alive would be too slow to sustain life.
The secret is in the active site - a perfectly shaped pocket that only fits specific substrates (the chemicals being processed). This is called the Lock-and-Key model because the fit has to be exact. When substrate and enzyme connect, they form an enzyme-substrate complex that quickly produces the desired product.
Three main factors affect how fast enzymes work. Temperature speeds things up initially, but too much heat denatures the enzyme (permanently changes its shape). Each enzyme has an optimum pH - stray too far either way and it stops working. Substrate concentration increases reaction rates until all enzymes are busy, then adding more substrate won't help.
Exam Tip: Remember that denatured enzymes can't be fixed - the shape change is permanent, unlike temporary slowdowns from cold or wrong pH levels.
5
of 10
Enzyme Reactions
Understanding enzyme activity gets much easier when you can read the graphs that show how they respond to different conditions. These graphs are exam favourites, so getting comfortable with them now will save you stress later.
The rate of reaction tells you how fast an enzyme is working. You calculate this by finding the gradient of a concentration graph - pick two points, find the change in y divided by change in x. When substrate concentration increases, the rate climbs until it hits a saturation point where all enzymes are fully occupied.
Digestive enzymes are your body's food processors, breaking down massive food molecules into tiny bits your bloodstream can absorb. Specialised cells in your gut and glands produce these enzymes to catalyse the breakdown of insoluble food into soluble molecules small enough to enter your blood.
Real-World Connection: Without digestive enzymes, you could eat a perfect meal but still starve because your body couldn't access the nutrients locked inside large molecules.
6
of 10
Digestive Enzymes
Your digestive system runs on three enzyme superstars, each with its own specialty. Amylase tackles carbohydrates, protease handles proteins, and lipase deals with fats - think of them as your body's specialist demolition crew.
Amylase is actually a type of carbohydrase that specifically targets starch, breaking it down into simple sugars like maltose. You'll find it working in your mouth (in saliva) and small intestine, with production happening in salivary glands, pancreas, and small intestine.
Protease breaks proteins into their building blocks - amino acids. It's produced in your stomach, pancreas, and small intestine, with most of the action happening in your stomach and small intestine. Lipase splits lipids (fats) into glycerol and fatty acids, and it's made and used primarily in your pancreas and small intestine.
Memory Hook: Think "APL" - Amylase (starch to sugars), Protease (proteins to amino acids), Lipase .
7
of 10
Cell Basics
Every living thing is built from cells, but not all cells are created equal. Animal cells, plant cells, and bacterial cells each have their own special features that help them survive in their particular environments.
Animal cells are the simplest setup - they've got a nucleus containing chromosomes, mitochondria for energy production, ribosomes for making proteins, and cytoplasm where most chemical reactions happen. The cell membrane controls what goes in and out.
Plant cells have everything animal cells do, plus some extras. The cell wall (made of cellulose) provides structure, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis, and a permanent large vacuole stores water. Bacterial cells are completely different - no nucleus, but they do have plasmids (small DNA rings) and flagella for movement.
Comparison Tip: Think of plant cells as animal cells with armour (cell wall), solar panels (chloroplasts), and a water tank (vacuole).
8
of 10
Specialised Cells
Some cells become so good at their specific jobs that they develop amazing specialised features. Sperm cells and egg cells are perfect examples of form following function in biology.
Sperm cells are basically tiny biological missiles designed for one mission - reaching and fertilising an egg. The tail (flagellum) provides propulsion, the middle section is packed with mitochondria for energy, and the acrosome contains enzymes to break through the egg's defences. The head carries the nucleus with half the genetic material needed to create new life.
Egg cells are the complete opposite - they're large, stationary, and packed with resources. The cytoplasm is loaded with nutrients to feed the developing zygote, and the cell membrane can change structure after fertilisation to block additional sperm. The haploid nucleus contains the other half of the genetic blueprint.
Key Concept: Sperm cells are haploid (23 chromosomes), egg cells are haploid (23 chromosomes), but when they combine, they create a diploid zygote (46 chromosomes).
9
of 10
The Nervous System
Your nervous system is basically your body's high-speed internet, constantly monitoring your environment and coordinating lightning-fast responses to keep you safe. It's made up of your brain, spinal cord, and millions of nerve cells working together.
The central nervous system (CNS) includes your brain and spinal cord - think of it as mission control. It processes information and coordinates responses from effectors (muscles and glands that actually do stuff). Neurones are the cables carrying electrical impulses between receptors (your sensors) and the CNS.
Neurone structure is brilliantly designed for speed. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body, while dendrites bring them in. The myelin sheath coating axons works like insulation on electrical wire, making impulses travel much faster. At synapses (gaps between neurones), electrical signals get converted to chemical neurotransmitters that diffuse across and trigger the next neurone.
Amazing Fact: Your nervous system can process information and trigger responses in milliseconds - faster than you can consciously think!
10
of 10
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Biology86 views·Updated May 17, 2026·13 pagesGCSE Biology Edexcel Key Concepts Notes
Onela Tissera@onela_tis
These biology notes cover some of the most fundamental processes that keep living things alive and functioning. You'll learn about stem cells (the body's repair kit), cell division (how we grow), enzymes (biological speed boosters), cell structures, and the nervous... Show more
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Stem Cells
Ever wondered how your body repairs cuts or how plants keep growing their entire lives? Stem cells are basically nature's ultimate multitool - they're undifferentiated cells that haven't picked a job yet, so they can become almost any type of cell your body needs.
You'll find stem cells in three main places. Plant meristems contain stem cells that can become any plant cell throughout the plant's life, which is why plants never stop growing. In humans, adult stem cells live in your bone marrow and other tissues, constantly replacing worn-out cells and fixing damage. Embryonic stem cells are the most versatile - they can become literally any cell type needed to build a complete organism.
The really exciting bit is how we can use stem cells medically. They're already helping treat Parkinson's disease, diabetes, and severe burns by replacing damaged cells. Therapeutic cloning creates embryos with the same DNA as the patient, preventing rejection issues.
Quick Tip: Remember the key difference - embryonic stem cells can become ANY cell type, while adult stem cells are more limited but still incredibly useful for repairs.
2
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Cell Division
Your body pulls off an incredible feat millions of times every day - creating perfect copies of cells through mitosis. This process is part of the cell cycle, which is basically your cells' way of growing, repairing damage, and reproducing.
The cell cycle has three main stages. During interphase, cells bulk up by making extra ribosomes and mitochondria, plus they copy all their chromosomes so each new cell gets a complete set. Mitosis is where the action happens - chromosomes line up, get pulled apart, and the nucleus splits in two. Finally, cytokinesis divides everything else, creating two identical diploid cells.
Here's the clever part: mitosis has four phases you need to know. Prophase (chromosomes coil up tightly), metaphase (they line up in the middle), anaphase (they get yanked to opposite ends), and telophase (two new nuclei form). Each phase flows seamlessly into the next.
Memory Trick: Think "PMAT" - Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. Like a doormat, but for cell division!
3
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Cell Division Types
Not all cell division is created equal - your body actually uses two completely different methods depending on what it's trying to achieve. Mitosis creates identical copies for growth and repair, while meiosis creates unique gametes for reproduction.
Meiosis is much more complex because it needs to create sex cells with exactly half the normal chromosomes. It involves two rounds of division, starting with chromosome replication, then two separate splits that create four haploid cells (each with 23 chromosomes in humans). These genetically different gametes ensure every baby is unique.
During sexual reproduction, male and female gametes fuse during fertilisation, restoring the full chromosome count (46 in humans). The fertilised cell then divides by mitosis to grow into an embryo. Asexual reproduction skips all this complexity - it only needs one parent, uses mitosis exclusively, and produces identical clones.
Key Point: Sexual reproduction = variety and survival advantages. Asexual reproduction = quick and efficient, but less adaptable to change.
4
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Enzymes
Think of enzymes as your body's personal trainers - they're biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by giving them exactly the right conditions to succeed. Without enzymes, the chemical reactions keeping you alive would be too slow to sustain life.
The secret is in the active site - a perfectly shaped pocket that only fits specific substrates (the chemicals being processed). This is called the Lock-and-Key model because the fit has to be exact. When substrate and enzyme connect, they form an enzyme-substrate complex that quickly produces the desired product.
Three main factors affect how fast enzymes work. Temperature speeds things up initially, but too much heat denatures the enzyme (permanently changes its shape). Each enzyme has an optimum pH - stray too far either way and it stops working. Substrate concentration increases reaction rates until all enzymes are busy, then adding more substrate won't help.
Exam Tip: Remember that denatured enzymes can't be fixed - the shape change is permanent, unlike temporary slowdowns from cold or wrong pH levels.
5
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Enzyme Reactions
Understanding enzyme activity gets much easier when you can read the graphs that show how they respond to different conditions. These graphs are exam favourites, so getting comfortable with them now will save you stress later.
The rate of reaction tells you how fast an enzyme is working. You calculate this by finding the gradient of a concentration graph - pick two points, find the change in y divided by change in x. When substrate concentration increases, the rate climbs until it hits a saturation point where all enzymes are fully occupied.
Digestive enzymes are your body's food processors, breaking down massive food molecules into tiny bits your bloodstream can absorb. Specialised cells in your gut and glands produce these enzymes to catalyse the breakdown of insoluble food into soluble molecules small enough to enter your blood.
Real-World Connection: Without digestive enzymes, you could eat a perfect meal but still starve because your body couldn't access the nutrients locked inside large molecules.
6
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
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Digestive Enzymes
Your digestive system runs on three enzyme superstars, each with its own specialty. Amylase tackles carbohydrates, protease handles proteins, and lipase deals with fats - think of them as your body's specialist demolition crew.
Amylase is actually a type of carbohydrase that specifically targets starch, breaking it down into simple sugars like maltose. You'll find it working in your mouth (in saliva) and small intestine, with production happening in salivary glands, pancreas, and small intestine.
Protease breaks proteins into their building blocks - amino acids. It's produced in your stomach, pancreas, and small intestine, with most of the action happening in your stomach and small intestine. Lipase splits lipids (fats) into glycerol and fatty acids, and it's made and used primarily in your pancreas and small intestine.
Memory Hook: Think "APL" - Amylase (starch to sugars), Protease (proteins to amino acids), Lipase .
7
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Cell Basics
Every living thing is built from cells, but not all cells are created equal. Animal cells, plant cells, and bacterial cells each have their own special features that help them survive in their particular environments.
Animal cells are the simplest setup - they've got a nucleus containing chromosomes, mitochondria for energy production, ribosomes for making proteins, and cytoplasm where most chemical reactions happen. The cell membrane controls what goes in and out.
Plant cells have everything animal cells do, plus some extras. The cell wall (made of cellulose) provides structure, chloroplasts contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis, and a permanent large vacuole stores water. Bacterial cells are completely different - no nucleus, but they do have plasmids (small DNA rings) and flagella for movement.
Comparison Tip: Think of plant cells as animal cells with armour (cell wall), solar panels (chloroplasts), and a water tank (vacuole).
8
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Specialised Cells
Some cells become so good at their specific jobs that they develop amazing specialised features. Sperm cells and egg cells are perfect examples of form following function in biology.
Sperm cells are basically tiny biological missiles designed for one mission - reaching and fertilising an egg. The tail (flagellum) provides propulsion, the middle section is packed with mitochondria for energy, and the acrosome contains enzymes to break through the egg's defences. The head carries the nucleus with half the genetic material needed to create new life.
Egg cells are the complete opposite - they're large, stationary, and packed with resources. The cytoplasm is loaded with nutrients to feed the developing zygote, and the cell membrane can change structure after fertilisation to block additional sperm. The haploid nucleus contains the other half of the genetic blueprint.
Key Concept: Sperm cells are haploid (23 chromosomes), egg cells are haploid (23 chromosomes), but when they combine, they create a diploid zygote (46 chromosomes).
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The Nervous System
Your nervous system is basically your body's high-speed internet, constantly monitoring your environment and coordinating lightning-fast responses to keep you safe. It's made up of your brain, spinal cord, and millions of nerve cells working together.
The central nervous system (CNS) includes your brain and spinal cord - think of it as mission control. It processes information and coordinates responses from effectors (muscles and glands that actually do stuff). Neurones are the cables carrying electrical impulses between receptors (your sensors) and the CNS.
Neurone structure is brilliantly designed for speed. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body, while dendrites bring them in. The myelin sheath coating axons works like insulation on electrical wire, making impulses travel much faster. At synapses (gaps between neurones), electrical signals get converted to chemical neurotransmitters that diffuse across and trigger the next neurone.
Amazing Fact: Your nervous system can process information and trigger responses in milliseconds - faster than you can consciously think!
10
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