The Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro in 1811 marked a turning point in Wellington's campaign. His confidence had been boosted by the success of Torres Vedras, and he was considering launching an offensive to relieve Almeida from French control.

The battle began with a French offensive against British troops. Wellington employed the tactic of forming squares to protect against cavalry attacks. Infantry with bayonets would form ranks in squares, with all soldiers facing outwards.

Vocabulary: Formation of squares - A defensive infantry tactic used to repel cavalry charges, where soldiers form a hollow square with outward-facing ranks.

The battle lasted three days and ended with a bayonet fight in the village. While the French were forced to retreat, few were captured. Wellington's army suffered from a lack of supplies, siege equipment, and sickness.

In 1812, Wellington launched his first major offensive, attacking the fortresses at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz. These sieges resulted in weeks of fighting and, unfortunately, led to looting, killing, and other atrocities against townspeople.

Highlight: The capture of Badajoz was particularly costly, with Wellington losing nearly 5,000 men. He wept when he saw the piles of dead soldiers.

The sieges of Almeida, Ciudad Rodrigo, and Badajoz were all successful, with the British capturing these key fortresses. The control of Badajoz was especially important as it secured lines of communication to Lisbon, the main base of the British army.

The Battle of Salamanca in 1812 was a pivotal moment in the Peninsular War. Wellington demonstrated his tactical brilliance by using hills to shield his army and take the French by surprise. His personal involvement was notable:

1. He went for days without sleep, often napping with a newspaper over his face.
2. He was almost constantly present in the saddle, directing troops.

The result of Salamanca was significant, with British forces entering Madrid and Wellington becoming a national hero.

Following the success at Salamanca, Wellington spent the winter of 1812 reinforcing and reorganizing his army. Meanwhile, Napoleon had declared war on Russia and recalled many troops from Spain to support his Russian campaign.

The final major battle of the Peninsular War was the Battle of Vitoria in 1813, which effectively ended French control in Spain.

The war culminated in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, though this took place after the official end of the Peninsular War. Wellington famously described Waterloo as "the nearest run thing you ever saw in your life."

Quote: "The nearest run thing you ever saw in your life" - Wellington on the Battle of Waterloo

At Waterloo, the forces were closely matched:

• British had 68,000 men and 156 guns
• French had 72,000 men and 246 guns

Wellington needed to hold out for Prussian reinforcements under Blücher to secure victory.

Highlight: The Peninsular War significantly weakened French control in Spain and Portugal, contributing to Napoleon's eventual downfall and the victory of Britain and its allies in 1814.

The Peninsular War began in 1807 when France and Spain signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, planning to invade and divide Portugal. French troops led by General Junot entered Portugal, prompting Portugal to request British assistance. In July 1808, British forces under Wellington arrived in Portugal and defeated the French at Rolica and Vimeiro.

Highlight: The French occupation of Spain, their former ally, led to Napoleon forcing the Spanish royal family to abdicate and replacing them with his brother, Joseph Bonaparte.

Wellington's troops advanced into Spain, facing 46,000 French soldiers at the Battle of Talavera in 1809. This battle was significant for several reasons:

1. It demonstrated that Portugal was a more reliable ally than Spain, which had been occupied by France.
2. It led to the retraining of the Portuguese army to integrate with British forces in 1810.
3. It highlighted the importance of secure supply lines, with Wellington having Royal Navy support from Lisbon.

Example: Wellington built massive defense lines known as Torres Vedras, consisting of 156 fortifications with 648 cannons, constructed between 1809 and 1812 in Portugal.

Wellington employed several key tactics during the Peninsular War:

1. Rearguard action: A defensive tactic using a small group of soldiers to hold off pursuing enemies while the main army withdraws.
2. Reverse slope defense: Positioning infantry on the reverse slope of a hill, out of sight and with some protection from cannon fire.
3. Scorched earth: Denying resources to the enemy by destroying them.

Definition: Torres Vedras was a series of 156 fortifications with 648 cannons, constructed between 1809 and 1812 in Portugal to defend against French advances.