This page delves into various word formation processes in English language A level and introduces key theories of language change.

Word formation processes discussed include:

• Affixation • Clipping • Blending • Compounding • Functional shift • Acronyms and initialisms • Borrowing • Neologisms

Example: 'Staycation' is an example of blending, combining 'stay' and 'vacation'.

The page then introduces theories of language change:

• Halliday's Functional Theory • Charles Hockett's Random Fluctuation and Cultural Transmission Theory

Highlight: Hockett's theory emphasizes two distinct stages of language change: innovation and diffusion.

Definition: A lexical gap occurs when there is a need to express something for which no word currently exists, leading to the creation of new words.

This page explores various models and metaphors used to explain language change in English language A level.

The Wave Model:

• Proposed by Bailey • Suggests changes start in geographical centers and spread outwards • Criticized as outdated due to the impact of computer-mediated communication (CMC)

The S-Curve Model:

• Developed by Chen • Describes the competition between new and existing language forms • Illustrates how new forms slowly gain prominence, reach a tipping point, and then plateau

Example: The S-curve model can be visualized as a graph showing the adoption rate of a new word or phrase over time.

Metaphors for language change:

• Jean Aitchison's metaphors: damp spoon, crumbling castle, infectious disease • David Crystal's tide metaphor

Quote: "Language change is like the tide washing on a beach; the tide will sometimes wash things ashore, sometimes these things stay for a long time, or sometimes they will be washed away again." - David Crystal

The page also introduces:

• Substratum Theory: language change through contact with other countries • Semantic Reclamation: repurposing words with negative associations

Example: The reclamation of the word "queer" by the LGBTQ+ community is an example of semantic reclamation.

This page highlights significant historical events that have shaped the English language A level curriculum's understanding of language change.

The Renaissance:

• Introduced classical learning from Greece and Rome to England • Resulted in many Latin words entering the English language

The Great Vowel Shift:

• A massive sound change in pronunciation between the 14th and 17th centuries • Long vowels shifted upwards in the mouth

Shakespeare's Influence:

• Contributed to standardizing English language rules and grammar • Experimented with liberal grammatical rules • Created at least 1,000 neologisms

Highlight: Shakespeare's works have had a lasting impact on the English language, introducing many words and phrases still used today.

The King James Bible:

• Translated from Latin to English in 1611 • Made religion more accessible to the general population • Became influential due to its global spread, contributing to English becoming a lingua franca

Caxton's Printing Press:

• Set up in Westminster Abbey • Necessitated more standardized spelling for wider accessibility

Vocabulary: Lingua franca - a common language used by speakers of different native languages

These historical events demonstrate how external factors can significantly influence language change in English language A level studies, providing context for the evolution of the English language over time.

This page introduces fundamental cognitive theories and concepts related to language acquisition and change.

Vocabulary: Cognitivist theory, Nativist theory, Usage-based theory

The page covers various theorists and their contributions to understanding language acquisition:

• Bruner, Nelson, and Montin's cognitive approaches • Piaget's constructivist theory • Skinner's behaviorist/imitation theory • Chomsky's nativist theory • Tomasello's usage-based theory

Highlight: The contrast between prescriptivism and descriptivism is a key concept in understanding attitudes towards language change.

The page also introduces important terminology related to language change:

• Prescriptivism vs Descriptivism • Archaic language • Political correctness • Codification • Strong and weak verbs

Definition: Linguistic determinism is the idea that language must change first to alter attitudes, while linguistic reflectionism suggests that attitudes must change before language does.