Glycogen and Starch: Energy Storage Molecules

Glycogen is a crucial energy storage molecule in animals, while starch serves a similar purpose in plants. Both are composed of glucose units but differ in their structure and branching patterns.

Definition: Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose that serves as the primary carbohydrate storage molecule in animals.

Glycogen structure and its role in energy storage is optimized for rapid energy release:

• It consists of short α-1,4 glycosidic bonds with numerous α-1,6 branches.
• The extensive branching allows glucose to be readily hydrolyzed for respiration.

Highlight: The branched structure of glycogen enables quick glucose release, making it an efficient energy storage molecule for rapid energy needs.

Starch, the plant equivalent of glycogen, is found in high concentrations in seeds and storage organs like potato tubers. It consists of two types of molecules:

1. Amylose: A linear structure of alpha glucose connected by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds Unbranched and coils into a helix
2. Amylopectin: Similar structure to glycogen but with longer α-1,4 glycosidic bonds Less branched compared to glycogen

Example: Potato tubers store large amounts of starch, which can be broken down to provide energy for the growing plant.

The storage of glucose in the form of these polymers offers several benefits:

1. Compact storage: Polymers of alpha glucose tend to coil, allowing storage substances to become more compact and occupy less space in cells.
2. Osmotic balance: Glucose is soluble and can increase the concentration of cell contents, potentially leading to excessive water uptake and cell damage. Storage in the form of insoluble polysaccharides prevents this osmotic effect.
3. Energy density: Storage polysaccharides carry a lot of energy in their carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Quote: "Storage substances are insoluble = prevents osmotic effect"

This insolubility is crucial for maintaining cellular integrity while storing large amounts of energy.

Cellulose and Chitin: Structural Carbohydrates

Cellulose and chitin are structural carbohydrates that play crucial roles in providing support and protection in plants and fungi, respectively. Their unique bonding and structure contribute to their strength and resilience.

Cellulose bonding and its significance in plant cell walls is fundamental to plant structure:

• Cellulose consists of many long parallel chains of beta glucose joined by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds.
• The bonds between each disaccharide rotate 180° each time, allowing hydrogen bonds to form between adjacent OH groups.
• This bonding pattern contributes significantly to the structural stability of cellulose.

Highlight: The hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains is key to the strength and rigidity of plant cell walls.

The structure of cellulose in plant cell walls is highly organized:

1. Microfibrils: 60 or more chains of cellulose run parallel to each other and are cross-linked by hydrogen bonds.
2. Macrofibrils: Bundles of microfibrils line up and are held together by hydrogen bonds.
3. Laminated structure: Macrofibrils run parallel within a layer but at an angle to adjacent layers, producing a laminated structure that gives strength to the cell wall.

Example: The laminated structure of cellulose in plant cell walls is similar to plywood, where layers are oriented at different angles to increase overall strength.

Chitin, found in fungal cell walls and exoskeletons of arthropods, shares structural similarities with cellulose:

• It resembles the structure of cellulose but with a key difference: the OH group at C2 is replaced by an NH.CO.CH3 group.
• When cross-linked with proteins, chitin produces a tough, resistant surface.

Vocabulary: Chitin is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, and is the main component of fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.

The structural similarities between cellulose and chitin highlight the evolutionary adaptations of different organisms to create strong, protective structures using carbohydrate polymers. These molecules demonstrate how slight variations in chemical structure can lead to diverse biological functions across different kingdoms of life.

Carbohydrates and Monosaccharides

Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides, the simplest form of carbohydrates, act as basic monomers and are often referred to as simple sugars. These small organic molecules play crucial roles in various biological processes.

Definition: Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, acting as the basic building blocks for more complex carbohydrate structures.

The functions of monosaccharides are diverse and essential for life:

1. They serve as a primary source of energy in respiration, where the breaking of carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds releases ATP.
2. Monosaccharides are constituents of nucleotides, with deoxyribose found in DNA and ribose in RNA.

Highlight: The benefits of monosaccharides in respiration are significant, as they provide readily available energy for cellular processes.

Glucose, a key monosaccharide, exists in two isomeric forms. The different forms of glucose result in biological differences when they form polymers. This structural diversity is crucial for various biological functions.

Example: Glucose isomers can form different types of bonds, leading to the creation of diverse carbohydrate structures like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Bonding between monosaccharides occurs through condensation reactions. When two units react, a condensation reaction takes place between the C1 and C4 of separate glucose units. This process removes water and forms a 1,4 glycosidic bond.

Vocabulary: A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides bond together. Examples include:

• Maltose $glucose + glucose$, found in germinating seeds
• Sucrose $glucose + fructose$, transported in the xylem of flowering plants
• Lactose $glucose + galactose$, present in mammalian milk

Monosaccharides have distinct properties that contribute to their biological roles:

• They have a sweet taste
• They are soluble in water
• They can form crystals

These properties make monosaccharides ideal for energy storage and transport within organisms.