The Four Tiers of Law in Natural Moral Theory

Natural Moral Law, as developed by Thomas Aquinas, is based on the belief that humans naturally strive to do good. This concept is structured around four tiers of law:

1. Eternal Law: This represents God's will for the universe. It is absolute, unchanging, and present in every person's soul, though only fully known by God.
2. Divine Law: This refers to the commands and teachings found in religious texts like the Bible. It encompasses what human reason is capable of knowing about God's will.
3. Natural Law: This is what humans can discern by observing nature and using reason. It is accessible to all people, regardless of their religious beliefs.
4. Human Law: These are the legal rules created by societies. Aquinas argued that these laws should be followed only if they don't contradict Natural Law.

Definition: Natural Law - The moral principles that can be derived from reason and observation of nature, applicable to all humans.

The foundation of Natural Moral Law is the idea that it is inherently good and based on reason. It aims to allow every human to flourish.

Quote: "Natural Law must always be understood as a principle, not a legal system of regulations" - Thomas Hobbes

Highlight: Natural Moral Law is intended to be universal and accessible through human reason, making it potentially applicable across different cultures and belief systems.

Primary and Secondary Precepts in Natural Moral Law

Natural Moral Law is structured around precepts, or moral rules, derived from human nature and reason. These are divided into primary and secondary precepts.

The key precept, known as synderesis, states that "good is to be done and evil to be avoided" $Aquinas$. This forms the foundation for all other precepts.

Primary Precepts:

1. Preservation of life / defending the innocent
2. Living in an ordered society
3. Worshipping God
4. Reproduction
5. Learning and education

Example: The precept of "preservation of life" would generally prohibit murder and require the protection of innocent life.

Secondary Precepts are derived from the primary precepts through the use of reason. For example, from the primary precept of reproduction, one might derive a secondary precept against homosexuality $as it cannot result in children$.

Highlight: It's important to note that these derivations, especially regarding topics like homosexuality, are controversial and not universally accepted in modern interpretations of Natural Moral Law.

Aquinas introduced the concept of "real and apparent goods" to explain why people sometimes do evil. He argued that evil is never directly desirable but is sought indirectly due to errors in reasoning.

Quote: "No evil can be desirable" - Aquinas

The Doctrine of Double Effect, also introduced by Aquinas, deals with actions that have both good and bad effects. It states that such actions may be permissible if:

1. The intention is good
2. The force used is not disproportionate
3. The action is not inherently wrong
4. The good effect outweighs the bad

Example: In self-defense, the intention to save one's own life could justify an action that results in harm to an attacker, provided the force used is not excessive.

Criticisms and Strengths of Natural Moral Law

Natural Moral Law, despite its influential role in ethical philosophy, faces several criticisms:

1. Cultural Relativism: What is deemed "natural" can vary across cultures and time periods. For instance, views on women's rights have changed dramatically over time.

Quote: "Using nature as the basis for morality is narrow and completely unhistorical" - Hans Küng

2. Derivation of Secondary Precepts: Critics argue that deriving secondary precepts from primary ones can be problematic. For example, the purpose of sex may not be solely for reproduction.

Quote: "We may have many purposes. Heterosexuality serves one, homosexuality may serve another" - Posner

3. The Fall and Human Imperfection: Some theologians, like Karl Barth, argue that Natural Moral Law doesn't give enough attention to the concept of "The Fall" and human imperfection.
4. Epistemological Concerns: Critics question whether we can truly know God or derive morality through reason alone.
5. Naturalistic Fallacy: G.E. Moore argued against deriving "ought" statements from "is" statements, challenging the basis of Natural Moral Law.

Vocabulary: Naturalistic Fallacy - The error of deriving moral conclusions from non-moral premises about nature.

Despite these criticisms, Natural Moral Law has several strengths:

1. Universality: Especially the principle of synderesis $do good, avoid evil$ is widely applicable.
2. Flexibility: It allows for some interpretation and use of individual reason.
3. Purpose: It provides a sense of purpose and meaning to morality.
4. Clarity: It offers clear guidelines for moral behavior.

Highlight: Natural Moral Law attempts to provide a universal ethical framework based on reason and nature, which can be appealing in its clarity and potential universality.

The theory continues to be influential in ethical discussions, particularly in religious contexts, while also facing ongoing debate and reinterpretation in light of modern ethical challenges.

Page 5: Philosophical Challenges and Strengths

The final page examines both criticisms and benefits of Natural Moral Law theory.

Highlight: The theory provides clear, universal principles while allowing for individual reasoning.

Quote: "There is within this negativity a protest against man as he actually is" - Helmut Thielicke

Example: The Ten Commandments demonstrate how moral laws can both limit and guide human nature.

Natural Moral Law Origins and Foundations

Natural Moral Law is a deontological and absolute ethical theory with roots in Aristotelian philosophy. The theory posits that moral truths can be discerned through reason and observation of nature.

Aristotle introduced the concept of telos, or purpose, arguing that fulfilling one's natural purpose leads to eudaimonia $happiness$. This idea forms the foundation of Natural Moral Law, suggesting that what is natural is inherently good.

Highlight: The concept that "what is natural is good" has been criticized as a naturalistic fallacy by philosophers like G.E. Moore.

Thomas Aquinas further developed this theory in his work "Summa Theologica". He argued that the purpose of human life is not merely happiness, but perfection - striving to be as god-like as possible.

Quote: "Good has a certain order to be apprehended universally" - Aquinas

Aquinas emphasized that humans have been given reason by God to discern how to achieve this perfection by observing nature. This concept of reason aligns with Cicero's statement that "true law is right reason in agreement with nature."

Vocabulary: Telos - The ultimate purpose or aim of something.

Vocabulary: Eudaimonia - A state of human flourishing or well-being.

The theory posits that while our ultimate end cannot be found in this world, nature reveals our purpose and provides guidance for moral behavior.