Primary and Secondary Precepts in Natural Moral Law

Natural Moral Law is structured around precepts, or moral rules, derived from human nature and reason. These are divided into primary and secondary precepts.

The key precept, known as synderesis, states that "good is to be done and evil to be avoided" (Aquinas). This forms the foundation for all other precepts.

Primary Precepts:

1. Preservation of life / defending the innocent
2. Living in an ordered society
3. Worshipping God
4. Reproduction
5. Learning and education

Example: The precept of "preservation of life" would generally prohibit murder and require the protection of innocent life.

Secondary Precepts are derived from the primary precepts through the use of reason. For example, from the primary precept of reproduction, one might derive a secondary precept against homosexuality (as it cannot result in children).

Highlight: It's important to note that these derivations, especially regarding topics like homosexuality, are controversial and not universally accepted in modern interpretations of Natural Moral Law.

Aquinas introduced the concept of "real and apparent goods" to explain why people sometimes do evil. He argued that evil is never directly desirable but is sought indirectly due to errors in reasoning.

Quote: "No evil can be desirable" - Aquinas

The Doctrine of Double Effect, also introduced by Aquinas, deals with actions that have both good and bad effects. It states that such actions may be permissible if:

1. The intention is good
2. The force used is not disproportionate
3. The action is not inherently wrong
4. The good effect outweighs the bad

Example: In self-defense, the intention to save one's own life could justify an action that results in harm to an attacker, provided the force used is not excessive.

Criticisms and Strengths of Natural Moral Law

Natural Moral Law, despite its influential role in ethical philosophy, faces several criticisms:

1. Cultural Relativism: What is deemed "natural" can vary across cultures and time periods. For instance, views on women's rights have changed dramatically over time.

Quote: "Using nature as the basis for morality is narrow and completely unhistorical" - Hans Küng

2. Derivation of Secondary Precepts: Critics argue that deriving secondary precepts from primary ones can be problematic. For example, the purpose of sex may not be solely for reproduction.

Quote: "We may have many purposes. Heterosexuality serves one, homosexuality may serve another" - Posner

3. The Fall and Human Imperfection: Some theologians, like Karl Barth, argue that Natural Moral Law doesn't give enough attention to the concept of "The Fall" and human imperfection.

4. Epistemological Concerns: Critics question whether we can truly know God or derive morality through reason alone.

5. Naturalistic Fallacy: G.E. Moore argued against deriving "ought" statements from "is" statements, challenging the basis of Natural Moral Law.

Vocabulary: Naturalistic Fallacy - The error of deriving moral conclusions from non-moral premises about nature.

Despite these criticisms, Natural Moral Law has several strengths:

1. Universality: Especially the principle of synderesis (do good, avoid evil) is widely applicable.

2. Flexibility: It allows for some interpretation and use of individual reason.

3. Purpose: It provides a sense of purpose and meaning to morality.

4. Clarity: It offers clear guidelines for moral behavior.

Highlight: Natural Moral Law attempts to provide a universal ethical framework based on reason and nature, which can be appealing in its clarity and potential universality.

The theory continues to be influential in ethical discussions, particularly in religious contexts, while also facing ongoing debate and reinterpretation in light of modern ethical challenges.