Close, two-way emotional bond between two individuals, seeking the other as emotional security.    Proximity -> infants trying to stay physically close.    Separation distress -> infants distressed when attachment figure leaves presence.    Secure base behaviour -> even when independent, tend to make regular contact.

Caregiver-infant interaction is a two way process, responding to the others’ signals. Behahviour elicits response, influences child’s psychological, physical, cognitive and neurological development. E.g. when a baby smiles, smiling back.     Negative reciprocal processes still contribute but won’t be advantageous to development. 

Caregiver-Infant Interactions; describe Reciprocity?

Pattern of social communication where behaviours of one or more individuals become synchronised by being carried out simultaneously. Mother and infant’s actions mirroring each other.

Caregiver-Infant Interactions; describe Interactional Synchrony?

+Tronick’s still face study shows baby becomes agitated when mother doesnt respond = reciprocity important for wellbeing.   +Meltzoff and Moor -> interactional synchrony in infants, showed 1 of 3 facial expressions or gestures. Association between baby’s actions and gesture.   +Controlled observation = multiple angles, babies don’t know, high validity and reliability.   -Babies nearly immobile, not deliberate movement. Don’t tell us the reason why. Feldman -> In.Sy. is just actions at same time.

Research into formation of attachment age. 60 babies from Glasgow, skilled working class families. Babies and mothers visited monthly for 1st year, then at 18 months. Asked mothers what kind of protest babies showed in 7 everyday separations (e.g. leaving the room) as a measure of separation anxiety and infant’s attachment. Also assessed stranger anxiety -> if unphased, could be indicator of neglect.

Decribe the procedure of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

Attachment data showed that between 25-32 weeks about 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety and specific attatenment.   Revealed attachments are more likely to form with carers who were sensitive to the babys signals (e.g. reciprocity) rather than physical care + time: responsive care more instrumental in development.    By age 10 months, 80% had specific attatchment and almost 30% displayed multiple attachments.   Most develop multiple after one true attachment

Decribe the findings of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

+External and ecological validity -> in families home doing ordinary activities, then reported later. Babies unlikely to be affected.   +Longitudianal design. Cross sectional quicker but LTD has no confounding variable of individual differences.   +Led to development of 4 stage theory of development of attachment.  -Sample lacks population (all same social class and city, may be different elsewhere) and temporal validity (took place 50+ years ago). Child rearing may differ in history and society

1; Asocial stage, birth-few weeks. Behaviour to objects and people similar, prefer familiar adults.  2; Indiscriminate Attachment, 2-7months. Prefer people, recognise familiar adults. Accept comfort from any adult, no separation or stranger anxiety.  3; Specific Attachment, from 7months. Stranger and separation anxiety from primary attachment figure (65% cases it’s bio mother).   4; Multiple Attachments, from 10/11months. Form secondary attachments with those they regularly spend time with.

Outline the 4 Stages of Attachment theory?

+S&E’s research found by age 10months 80% had specific attachment, 30%.  multiple. By 1year majority had multiple.     -Problems studying the asocial stage as they are nearly immobile, but important interactions occur, so difficult to make judgements.   -Unsure as to when multiple attachments form. Children distressed when playmates leave, S&E doesn’t distinguish between secondary attachment vs playmate.    -Cultural factors -> Van Ijzendoorn et al; collectivist cultures rear kids together.

Evaluate the 4 Stages of Attachment theory?

Comfort & maternally deprivation in 8 rhesus monkeys; caged from infancy, either wire mesh food dispensing surrogate mothers, and cloth covered surrogate mother to investigate which of the 2 more attached attached to by measuring amount of time spent with them. Found separated monkeys showed more attachment to cloth surrogate, exploring toy room when cloth mother present. Phobic responses when only food dispensing mother present shows importance of contact comfort rather than food in attachment.

Describe Harlow’s Procedure and Findings?

Found rhesus monkeys deprived of a real mother were affected severely.    Those with wire mothers were most dysfunctional however those reared with a soft toy didn’t develop normal social behaviour.    More aggressive, less social, and bred less due to being unskilled at mating.     As mother, some neglected their children and others attacked their children, sometimes killing them.    Attachment has to form within 90 days between mother and infant, else effects of early deprivation irreversible.

Describe Harlow’s Monkeys as Adults and the Critical Period?

+Theoretical value; shows attachment result of contact comfort, important for quality of relationships and social development.    +Practical value; important applications e.g. social workers understand risk factors of child neglect/abuse, and in proper care zoos.  -Ethical issues as psychological harm. Rhesus monkeys very similar to humans. Harlow referred to the wire mothers as the “iron maiden”. Showed signs of depression.   -Non human primates not very generalisable to humans.

Experiment by dividing clutch of goose eggs, half hatched in natural environment with their mother, half hatched in incubator with Lorenz. Incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere, control group followed mothers.  Imprinting -> bird species that are mobile from birth attach to first moving thing they see.   Critical period -> few hours up to 24hr for geese.   Sexual Imprinting -> relationship between imprinting and adult male preferences, imprint on humans = courtship behaviour towards humans.

Describe Lorenz’s Procedure and Findings?

-Generalisability problems from birds to humans, but influenced understanding of human development.   -Mammalian attachment style different to birds eg. mammal mothers show more emotional attachment to their young and they may be able to form attachment at any age.   -Imprinting can’t be shown in babies as they are nearly immobile, cannot follow mothers around.  -Guiton et al; chickens who imprint on yellow washing up gloves tried to mate with them but later preferred other chickens.  -Unethical

Bowlby; fathers can fill role resembling that of the mother, but uncommon in most cultures. States fathers more likely to engage in physically active novel play.   Schaffer and Emerson found majority babies attached to mothers first (around 7months). 75% formed attachment with father by 18months.   Grossman did a longitudinal study of 44 families comparing mothers and fathers contribution to children’s attachment at 6,10,16years. Fathers style linked to their own internal working model (schemas)

Describe multiple attachments and the role of the father?

-Inconsistent results as to role, as research is interested in different things; secondary or primary attachment?   -If fathers have a distinct role, why aren’t children without them different? Focus on play than nurturing. Grossman found as a secondary attachment they have an important role. Golombok found kids in same-sex or single parent households don’t develop differently.   -Why don’t fathers become primary attachments? Could be due to traditional roles, or female hormones like oestrogen. 

Evaluate multiple attachments and the role of the father?

Rejected learning theory.  Adaptive - attachment increases survival chance (safe,warm,food).  Social releasers - unlock adults innate tendency to care for baby. Physical and behavioural features unlocking reciprocal process.  Critical period - 2.5year else irreversible long term cognitive, emotional and social consequences. Maximally sensitive at 2yr.  Monotropy - one special attachment with their mother or substitute.  Internal working model - monotropic attachment forms IWM (schemas).

Describe Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory? ASCMI

-S&E contradicted monotropy; some babies can form multiple attachments at same time. Seuss et al argued primary attachment could be stronger, not better quality for predicting behaviour.  +Brazleton et al observed mothers & babies, finding evidence of interactional synchrony & social releaser importance.  +IWM testable; predicts generations. Bailey et al assessed 99 mothers with 1 yr old babies & mothers attachment to their own mother, worse=worse with baby.  -Role of Temperament  -Deterministic

Dollard & Miller proposed attachment formed because carers give food.  Classial Conditioning -> caregiver neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus through association with food.  Operant Conditioning -> repeat behaviour depending on consequences. Babies cry for comfort, leads to comfort from caregiver (feeding). If correct response, crying reinforced meanwhile caregiver receives negative reinforcement because baby stops crying. Hunger = primary drive motivates us to eat (primary influencer)

-Lorenz’s and Harlow’s research found otherwise, showing contact more important.   -S&E’s study found primary attachment to bio mother even if others did most of the feeding, so not key element or primary drive.  -Ignore reciprocity and interactional synchrony, yes reinforcement involved, but rather of responsiveness than food. Ca-In interactions suggest quality associated with reciprocity and interactional synchrony.  -Ignores temperament, family, cultural and social factors = reductionist.

“Strange situation”. Observed infants to see how they act in unfamiliar lab with two way mirror, and mother’s sensitivity to infant. 8 episodes each 3 min. Standardised = reliable.  Proximity seeking; exploration and secure base behaviour; stranger anxiety; separation anxiety; response and reunion with the caregiver.

Describe the Procedure of Ainsworths study?

1. Observer introduces mother & infant to room & leaves.   2. Mother passive, infant explores = exploration & secure base behaviour.   3. Stranger enters, stays silent, converses with mother, mother leaves, observer approaches infant = stranger anxiety.   4. Stranger engages infant = separation and stranger anxiety.   5. Stranger leaves, mother comforts infant = reunion behaviour.  6. mother leaves, infant alone = separation anxiety.  7. stranger enters = anxiety.  8. mother enters = reunion.

Describe each Episode of Ainsworths study?

3 types.    -Secure Attachment (Type B) - explore but return to caregiver, moderate separation distrsss and moderate stranger anxiety. Accept comfort in reunion. 60-75% UK toddlers.   -Insecure Avoidant Attachment - explore but don’t seek proximity or secure base behaviour. Little reaction to separation and strangers. Don’t require comfort at reunion. 20-25%.  Insecure Resistant Attachment - explore less, seek proximity more. Huge stranger and separation anxiety but resist comfort at reunion. 3%

Describe the Findings of Ainsworth’s study?

+Predictive validity. Kukikinos found insecure resistant attachment (IRA) associated with bullying. Ward et al found IRA correlated with mental health problems.   +-Inter observer reliability of 0.94. Mothers know of observation = social desirability and demand characteristics.  -Lacks ecological validity = unfamiliar environment.  -Culture bound categories, e.g. Japanese rarely leave babies alone, immediately picked them up when entered room.

Van Ijzendoorn; meta analysis comparing % of attachment types in 8 countries based 32 studies using strange situation. 2000 infant-mother relationships.   Secure attachment most common in every country (highest in GB 75%, lowest in China 50%) = attachment innate process?  Insecure avoidant 2nd common in western (individualistic)cultures.   Insecure resistant 2nd common in collectivist cultures. China had equal 25%. 1.5x more variation within same culture than between countries = sub culture norm

Describe the Procedures and Findings of Cultural Variations?

+-Large sample reduces impact of anomaly’s, however secondary data lacks reliability.   +High reliability as standardised comparisons across cultures.  -Grossman et al Germany study found % insecure avoidant higher than secure. Meta analysis can mask variations in a culture.   -Cultural bias; ethnocentric, Rothbaum et al argued its rooted in western culture that its not applicable. Takahashi’s Japanese study found no evidence of IAA but 32% IRA. 90% distressed when alone as its rare to be left.

Evaluate Cultural Variations in Attachment?

Presence of nurture from mother/substitute key for psychological, emotional & intellectual development.    Separation = not being in presence of primary attachment figure, not issue unless becomes deprived from extended separations.   Critical period; first 30 months, if deprived = psychological damage inevitable.    Intellectual; cognitive defects & lower IQ shown by Goldfarb institution study (institution vs fosetered).   Emotional; affectionless psychopathy - inability of guilt and emotion.

Outline Bowlby’s theory of Maternal Deprivation?

Emotional result of maternal deprivation. Characterised by the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion for others. Prevents person from developing normal relationships and is associated with criminality as they cannot appreciate feelings of victims and lack remorse.

+Bowlby’s 44 thieves study; link between affectionless psychopathy (AP) and maternal dep. 44 criminal teens interviewed for AP, families interviewed for early dep. 14/44 AP, and 12/14 dep. Only 5/30 remaining dep. 2/44 control deprived.   -44T subjective interpretation, lack pop validity.   -Lewis replicated with 500 p’s, early dep did not predict criminality or relationship difficulty.   -SENSITIVE not critical, Koluchova twins isolation 18mth-7years, good aftercare and love improves outcome.

Evaluate Bowlby’s theory of Maternal Deprivaton?

Institutions = outside family home, kids cared for by staff (e.g. orphanages, children’s homes), multiple carer turnover making attachment hard.    Longitunial study called ERA (English and Romanian Adoptee), Rutter; 165 Romanian orphans physical, mental and emotional effects at 4, 6, 11 and 15yr. Can nurturing care reverse damage? Parental reports at 4 & 6 to see willingness with strangers, home observation to measure “overly friendly”, parent & teacher reports at 11 on peer relations. 

Outline the procedure of the Romanian Orphan studies on the effects of institutionalisation?

Age at the time of adoption; before the age of 6 months, between 6months-2 years, and after 2 years.    Control group; 52 British kids adopted at the same time.

What was the independent variable of the Romanian Orphan studies on the effects of institutionalisation?

Disinhibited attachment; children adopted after 6mth (26.1%), “persuasive pattern of attention seeking behaviour”, lack of selectivity in social relationships e.g. seek attention inappropriately and indiscriminately to all adults. Rare in control (3.8%). Rutter said poor care= no secure attachment.   Cog development; age adopted affected dev. Half infants show deficit when first arrived, by 4yr, those adopted before 6mth recover. 11 yr mean IQ; before 6mth=102, 6mth-2yr=86, 2yr+=77. Same at 16yr

Outline the findings of the Romanian Orphan studies on the effects of institutionalisation?

+Emphasised by Bowlby and Schaffer as infants under 6mth more stable relationships.  +Zeenah et al supports disinhibited attachment, compared to control of Romanian kids who hadn’t been institutionalised vs kids spent 90% time in institution more likely to show disinhabited attachment.   +Longitudinal = high reliability.  -Arbitrary decision on follow up time, may later catch up.   -May not represent all dep experiences (pop validity).   +Real life application = improve policies e.g. key worker.

Evaluate the Romanian Orphan studies on the effects of institutionalisation?

IWM used to study influence of early attachment on later relationships e.g. poor childhood friendships, poor parenting, mental health, bullying etc all effect IWM.    Children ‘s attachment type is associated with quality of peer relationships. Secure attached = best quality childhood friendships. Insecure attached = friendship difficulties (Kems).   Rowan Myron-Wilson and Peter Smith assessed attachment and bullying involvement by questionnaire. 196 7-11yr London. Secure = unlikely involvement.

Outline the influence of early childhood attachment and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model?   PART 1; IWM AND CHILDHOOD?

Procedure; adult relationships assessed by the “Love Quiz” by Hazan and Shaver. 620 replied to quiz in American newspaper. 3 Sections: current/most important relationship, general experiences, assessment of attachment type.    Findings; 56% respondants securely attached, 25% insecure avoidant, 19% insecure resistant. Secure attachments better and longer lasting relationships. Avoidants have higher jealously and intimacy fear. 

Outline the influence of early childhood attachment and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model?   PART 1; ADULTHOOD AND FINDINGS?

+-Some support IWM and continuity; Bailey et al of 99 mothers, same attachment with mother as with kid. Zimmerman et al 12-18mth attachment type not good indicator of later relations. McCarthy et al 28% insecure have good relations. -Farley; correlation low as 0.1 childhood attachment & later relationships. Temperament & other factorss may account for relationship.   -Deterministic & pessimistic forecast; all unhappy children doomed to unhappy adulthood.  -Self reports = social des, demand char.

Evaluate the influence of early childhood attachment and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model?

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