AQA Psychology - Relationships - Detailed 6-Point AO1 Summaries

Inter-sexual Selection

Ever wondered why you find certain people attractive? Inter-sexual selection explains how different sexes choose mates based on evolutionary needs that have developed over millions of years.

According to Dawkins' 'sexy son' hypothesis, we're attracted to certain traits because they signal good genes that could be passed on. Women typically look for partners who can protect and provide, whilst men often focus on signs of health and fertility like clear skin, shiny hair, and youth.

This difference comes down to anisogamy - the fact that male and female reproductive cells differ massively. Women are born with all their eggs and have limited fertility windows, making them naturally choosier about potential partners. It's not shallow - it's biology working behind the scenes to influence your preferences.

Quick Tip: Understanding these evolutionary patterns doesn't mean you're controlled by them - awareness helps you make more conscious relationship choices.

Relationship Breakdown

Breakups don't just happen overnight - Duck's model shows they're actually a four-stage process that unfolds over time. Each phase involves reaching a 'threshold' where your perception of the relationship shifts.

The intra-psychic phase starts in your head with growing resentment and focusing on your partner's flaws. Next comes the dyadic phase, where you actually start confronting these issues together through difficult conversations.

The social phase brings your wider circle into it - friends and family get involved, and everyone's expected to 'pick a side'. Finally, the grave-dressing phase involves creating a story about what happened that you can live with publicly and privately.

Understanding these stages helps you recognise where you might be in a struggling relationship and what to expect next.

Physical Attractiveness

Physical attractiveness isn't just about vanity - it's a powerful force that shapes how others see you in almost every aspect of life. Evolutionary psychologists argue we're wired to find certain features attractive because they signal health and reproductive potential.

The 'halo effect' discovered by Dion shows that attractive people are automatically assumed to be happier, more competent as parents, and likely to have high-status jobs. This bias affects everything from job interviews to court decisions, whether we realise it or not.

However, the matching hypothesis suggests we tend to pursue romantic partners whose attractiveness level matches our own. This maximises your chances of success whilst avoiding constant rejection from people 'out of your league' or settling for someone you're not genuinely attracted to.

Reality Check: Whilst physical attraction matters, remember that attractiveness is more subjective and changeable than media often suggests.

The Investment Model

Why do some relationships last whilst others crumble? Rusbult's Investment Model identifies three key factors that determine relationship commitment: satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, and investment size.

Satisfaction depends on whether your relationship feels rewarding overall - plenty of benefits with manageable costs. Comparison with alternatives involves whether you think you could do better elsewhere, whether that's another person, focusing on mates, or simply being single.

Investment includes everything you'd lose if the relationship ended - money, shared possessions, happy memories, or future plans. The more you've invested, the harder it becomes to walk away, even when satisfaction drops.

Couples also use maintenance mechanisms like forgiveness, making sacrifices, and even criticising potential alternatives to keep their relationship strong. These strategies help relationships survive rough patches.

Parasocial Relationships

You probably have a parasocial relationship and don't even know it - these are one-sided connections where you feel close to someone (usually famous) who has no idea you exist. Think about your favourite influencer, celebrity, or fictional character you follow obsessively.

Maltby identified three levels: entertainment-social (casual interest), intense-personal (feeling like they're your actual friend), and borderline pathological (completely obsessed). Most people experience the first level without any problems.

People with insecure attachment styles from difficult childhoods are more likely to develop intense parasocial relationships. These connections feel safer than real relationships because there's no risk of rejection, no demands placed on you, and you maintain complete control.

Food for Thought: Parasocial relationships can be harmless fun, but if they're replacing real connections, it might be worth examining why.

Equity Theory

Equity theory extends beyond just maximising benefits - it focuses on fairness between partners. You feel most comfortable when what you put into a relationship roughly equals what you get out of it.

Problems arise when you feel over-benefitted (getting too much compared to your input) or under-benefitted (giving more than you receive). Both situations create stress and motivation to restore balance, though being under-benefitted typically feels worse.

According to Hatfield and Rapson, you can restore equity by actually changing the balance, convincing yourself things are fair as they are, or leaving entirely. Realignment involves ongoing efforts to maintain fairness as circumstances change.

This theory explains why relationships where one person does all the work often fail - even the person receiving more benefits can feel uncomfortable with the unfairness.

Filter Theory

Filter theory explains how we narrow down potential partners through three progressive stages, like a series of sieves that eliminate unsuitable matches.

Social demography is the first filter - we're naturally drawn to people similar to us in location, age, social class, education, ethnicity, and religion. Proximity matters because you can't fancy someone you never meet.

Similarity in attitudes comes next, where self-disclosure reveals whether you share basic values and agree on important issues. This stage separates casual acquaintances from potential serious partners.

Finally, complementarity of needs involves finding someone whose different traits balance yours perfectly. Age-gap relationships often work this way - younger partners might offer energy and beauty, whilst older ones provide security and resources.

Pro Tip: Don't panic if you and your partner seem different - complementary traits can actually strengthen relationships more than total similarity.

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory treats relationships like business transactions, following the minimax principle - minimising losses whilst maximising gains. You're attracted to people who offer the best reward-to-cost ratio.

The theory outlines four stages: sampling (testing the waters), bargaining (negotiating what works), commitment (settling into predictable patterns), and institutionalisation (establishing relationship norms).

Your comparison level - what you think you deserve based on past experience - determines relationship satisfaction. Someone who's had amazing previous relationships will have higher expectations than someone who's been treated poorly.

Comparison level for alternatives weighs your current relationship against other options, including being single. This explains why people sometimes leave decent relationships when something better comes along, or stay in poor ones when alternatives seem worse.

Intra-sexual Selection

Intra-sexual selection involves same-sex competition for mates - basically, members of one sex (usually males) competing against each other for access to the other sex. The winners pass on their competitive advantages.

This creates 'winner and loser effects' where successful traits like strength, intelligence, and sometimes aggression get passed down through generations. It's why human males average 15% larger than females - physical dimorphism resulting from millions of years of male competition.

Think deer antlers or peacock tail feathers - these sexually dimorphic characteristics evolved as weapons or displays for out-competing rivals. In humans, this might explain why some men are naturally more competitive or aggressive.

However, remember that behavioural consequences of evolution are controversial and don't determine your individual personality. Understanding these patterns helps explain broad trends, not personal destiny.

Important: Evolutionary explanations describe general patterns, not rules that control your individual behaviour or choices.

Self-disclosure

Self-disclosure - sharing personal information with someone - is the foundation of relationship formation. Altman and Taylor's social penetration theory shows how relationships develop from superficial chat to deep, intimate sharing.

There are two key dimensions: breadth (covering lots of topics but staying fairly safe) and depth (revealing truly personal, potentially risky information). Healthy relationships need both, developing gradually over time.

Reciprocity is crucial - you need mutual sharing for relationships to deepen. If only one person opens up, it creates an uncomfortable imbalance that usually kills romantic potential.

Several factors affect disclosure patterns: cultural background, gender (women typically share more personal information), appropriateness for your relationship stage, and your motivation for sharing. Getting the timing and level right takes practice but dramatically impacts relationship success.