Understanding Language and Power: A-Level English Notes

Norman Fairclough's Types of Power

Think about the last time someone told you what to do - the type of power they had over you probably fit into one of Fairclough's three categories. Situational power exists only in specific moments, regardless of someone's background or status. Even King Charles can lose his authority when getting egged by protesters!

Institutional power comes from your role or job within an organisation. Teachers have this over students, managers over employees, and doctors over patients. It's all about the hierarchy you're part of.

Societal power is the broadest type - it comes from which social groups you belong to. Your age, gender, ethnicity, class, wealth, or education all contribute to this kind of influence. Celebrities wield societal power simply because of their fame and status.

Key Insight: Power isn't just about being "in charge" - it shifts depending on context, role, and social position.

French and Raven's Six Bases of Power

These psychologists identified six distinct ways people gain power over others, and you'll recognise all of them from daily life. Legitimate power comes from being officially appointed to a role - think business managers or elected officials.

Reward power means you can give people things they want (teachers awarding house points), whilst coercive power is the ability to punish (your boss could fire you). Referent power happens when people look up to you and value your opinions - the most likeable person in your friend group probably has this.

Expert power comes from specialist knowledge (professors, engineers), and informational power is about having access to important information that others need. Notice how these different power types often overlap in real relationships.

Quick Check: Think about your teachers - which types of power do they use most often in lessons?

Grice's Maxims and Brown & Levinson's Face Theory

Grice's Maxims explain how we're supposed to communicate cooperatively. The four rules are quality (be truthful), quantity (give the right amount of information), relevance (stay on topic), and manner (be clear and polite). Politicians often break these rules deliberately!

When someone violates a maxim secretly (like lying), they're being deceptive. Flouting means breaking them obviously - like giving really short answers when you're annoyed. This creates implicature, where your real meaning comes through despite breaking the rules.

Face theory is about how we want others to see us. Positive face is your desire to be liked and accepted, whilst negative face is wanting freedom from others' demands. We use positive politeness (compliments, friendly terms) and negative politeness (apologetic language) to protect people's face.

Face-threatening acts happen when someone's desired image gets challenged through speech or actions - think about how embarrassing it feels when someone calls you out in front of others.

Real World Application: Understanding these concepts helps you navigate tricky conversations and recognise when people are using language strategically.