Maths
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English Language
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Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
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Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
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Economics
11 Dec 2025
1,026
11 pages
Lucía @luttior
Ever wondered why you can't have everything you want, or why economists seem to debate about what governments... Show more
You'll encounter two types of economic statements that are crucial to distinguish. Positive statements are about "what is" - they're factual claims based on evidence and economic theory that can be tested or proven. Think of them as the objective, scientific side of economics.
Normative statements are about "what should be" - they involve personal opinions and value judgements. These reflect what someone believes ought to happen, not what actually happens.
Here's the key difference saying "raising alcohol taxes will reduce alcohol consumption" is positive (it's based on economic theory), but saying "the government should raise alcohol taxes" is normative (it's an opinion about what's right).
Remember Positive = provable facts, Normative = personal opinions
Here's the fundamental issue that drives all of economics we live in a world of unlimited wants but limited resources. This creates scarcity, which forces everyone - individuals, businesses, and governments - to make choices about how to use what they have.
Think about your own life. You probably want loads of things but have a limited budget, so you constantly choose between spending on different items. This same principle applies everywhere, from governments choosing between hospitals and schools to businesses deciding what products to make.
Scarcity leads to three key questions every society must answer What to produce? How to produce it? For whom should we produce it? These aren't just theoretical - they shape real decisions that affect your daily life.
Key insight Even wealthy countries face scarcity because human wants are truly unlimited - there's always something more we desire.
Scarcity isn't just about extreme poverty (though that's certainly an example). Even if you live comfortably in the UK, you still experience scarcity because your wants exceed your resources. You might want the latest iPhone, designer clothes, holidays abroad, and a car - but your income limits what you can actually have.
This connects to human nature itself. Philosophers and economists have noted that people don't just want to be wealthy - they want to be wealthier than others. This explains phenomena like "keeping up with the Joneses" where people constantly want better things than their neighbours.
The economic problem affects everyone differently, but it affects everyone. Whether you're choosing between a sandwich and a drink at lunch, or a government is choosing between funding cancer drugs or surgical equipment, it's all the same underlying issue.
Reality check Your wants really are unlimited - just think about how your wish list keeps growing even when you get things you wanted.
Not everything in our world is scarce. Economic goods are scarce relative to demand, which means consuming them involves an opportunity cost - the benefit you give up from the next best alternative. Most things you buy are economic goods because there isn't enough for everyone to have as much as they want.
Free goods, on the other hand, are abundant enough that consuming them doesn't prevent others from consuming them too. Air is the classic example - you breathing doesn't stop others from breathing.
The key distinction is opportunity cost. When you choose to spend money on something, you're giving up the chance to spend that money on something else. That's the opportunity cost, and it only applies to economic goods.
Test tip If a good has an opportunity cost when consumed, it's an economic good. If not, it's a free good.
Every good or service you've ever consumed was made using some combination of four factors of production. Understanding these helps explain how our economy actually creates the things we need and want.
Land includes all natural resources - not just soil, but oil, minerals, forests, rivers, and even climate. Labour is human effort, from manual work to brain surgery to professional football. Capital means goods created to make other goods - machinery, factories, computers, even schools (but not money itself).
Enterprise is the special factor that brings everything else together. Entrepreneurs take risks, start businesses, and organize the other factors to create products profitably. Without enterprise, the other factors would just sit there unused.
Different products need different combinations of these factors. A box of vegetables needs lots of land and labour but little capital, while a car needs massive amounts of capital and relatively less land.
Remember Capital in economics means physical things that help produce other goods, not money or financial assets.
Each factor of production earns a reward for contributing to the production process, and these rewards have specific names. Labour earns wages or salaries - this is why you get paid for your part-time job. The more skilled you are, the higher wages you can command.
Land earns rent - payments for the use of natural resources. Capital earns interest - the return on physical assets used in production. Enterprise earns profit - the reward for taking risks and successfully organizing production.
These factor incomes explain how wealth gets distributed in the economy. Your family's income comes from providing one or more factors of production to businesses that need them.
Connect the dots Your wages are the economy's way of rewarding you for providing labour - the more valuable your contribution, the higher your potential earnings.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Explore key concepts in economic methodology, including scarcity, resource allocation, and the Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF). This summary covers positive and normative statements, the factors of production, and opportunity costs, providing a comprehensive understanding of the economic problem. Ideal for exam preparation and active recall.
EconomicsExplore key concepts of scarcity, economic systems, and the factors of production in this comprehensive summary. This resource covers the nature of economic activity, the role of specialization, and the impact of different economic systems on resource allocation. Ideal for students seeking to grasp foundational economic principles and their real-world applications.
EconomicsExplore the fundamental concepts of economic scarcity, resource allocation, and opportunity cost. This summary covers the nature of economic problems, types of goods and services, and the role of economic agents. Ideal for students seeking clarity on economic methodology and decision-making processes. Key topics include economic goods, trade-offs, and the free-rider problem.
EconomicsExplore the core concepts of economics, including the nature of economic systems, the problem of scarcity, and resource allocation. This summary covers key topics such as positive and normative statements, opportunity cost, and the factors of production. Ideal for A Level Edexcel A students seeking a comprehensive understanding of economic principles.
EconomicsExplore the fundamental concepts of the economic problem, including scarcity, opportunity cost, and trade-offs. This summary covers key questions such as what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce, essential for Edexcel AS/A Level Economics. Ideal for students seeking clarity on economic principles.
EconomicsExplore key concepts in economics, including the economic problem, opportunity cost, and resource allocation. This summary covers essential topics for A-Level students, focusing on economic systems, factors of production, and the nature of economics as a social science.
EconomicsApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Lucía
@luttior
Ever wondered why you can't have everything you want, or why economists seem to debate about what governments "should" do? Economics starts with understanding two key ideas: the difference between facts and opinions, and why scarcity forces us all to... Show more
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Join milions of students
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You'll encounter two types of economic statements that are crucial to distinguish. Positive statements are about "what is" - they're factual claims based on evidence and economic theory that can be tested or proven. Think of them as the objective, scientific side of economics.
Normative statements are about "what should be" - they involve personal opinions and value judgements. These reflect what someone believes ought to happen, not what actually happens.
Here's the key difference: saying "raising alcohol taxes will reduce alcohol consumption" is positive (it's based on economic theory), but saying "the government should raise alcohol taxes" is normative (it's an opinion about what's right).
Remember: Positive = provable facts, Normative = personal opinions
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Here's the fundamental issue that drives all of economics: we live in a world of unlimited wants but limited resources. This creates scarcity, which forces everyone - individuals, businesses, and governments - to make choices about how to use what they have.
Think about your own life. You probably want loads of things but have a limited budget, so you constantly choose between spending on different items. This same principle applies everywhere, from governments choosing between hospitals and schools to businesses deciding what products to make.
Scarcity leads to three key questions every society must answer: What to produce? How to produce it? For whom should we produce it? These aren't just theoretical - they shape real decisions that affect your daily life.
Key insight: Even wealthy countries face scarcity because human wants are truly unlimited - there's always something more we desire.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Scarcity isn't just about extreme poverty (though that's certainly an example). Even if you live comfortably in the UK, you still experience scarcity because your wants exceed your resources. You might want the latest iPhone, designer clothes, holidays abroad, and a car - but your income limits what you can actually have.
This connects to human nature itself. Philosophers and economists have noted that people don't just want to be wealthy - they want to be wealthier than others. This explains phenomena like "keeping up with the Joneses" where people constantly want better things than their neighbours.
The economic problem affects everyone differently, but it affects everyone. Whether you're choosing between a sandwich and a drink at lunch, or a government is choosing between funding cancer drugs or surgical equipment, it's all the same underlying issue.
Reality check: Your wants really are unlimited - just think about how your wish list keeps growing even when you get things you wanted.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Not everything in our world is scarce. Economic goods are scarce relative to demand, which means consuming them involves an opportunity cost - the benefit you give up from the next best alternative. Most things you buy are economic goods because there isn't enough for everyone to have as much as they want.
Free goods, on the other hand, are abundant enough that consuming them doesn't prevent others from consuming them too. Air is the classic example - you breathing doesn't stop others from breathing.
The key distinction is opportunity cost. When you choose to spend money on something, you're giving up the chance to spend that money on something else. That's the opportunity cost, and it only applies to economic goods.
Test tip: If a good has an opportunity cost when consumed, it's an economic good. If not, it's a free good.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Every good or service you've ever consumed was made using some combination of four factors of production. Understanding these helps explain how our economy actually creates the things we need and want.
Land includes all natural resources - not just soil, but oil, minerals, forests, rivers, and even climate. Labour is human effort, from manual work to brain surgery to professional football. Capital means goods created to make other goods - machinery, factories, computers, even schools (but not money itself).
Enterprise is the special factor that brings everything else together. Entrepreneurs take risks, start businesses, and organize the other factors to create products profitably. Without enterprise, the other factors would just sit there unused.
Different products need different combinations of these factors. A box of vegetables needs lots of land and labour but little capital, while a car needs massive amounts of capital and relatively less land.
Remember: Capital in economics means physical things that help produce other goods, not money or financial assets.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Each factor of production earns a reward for contributing to the production process, and these rewards have specific names. Labour earns wages or salaries - this is why you get paid for your part-time job. The more skilled you are, the higher wages you can command.
Land earns rent - payments for the use of natural resources. Capital earns interest - the return on physical assets used in production. Enterprise earns profit - the reward for taking risks and successfully organizing production.
These factor incomes explain how wealth gets distributed in the economy. Your family's income comes from providing one or more factors of production to businesses that need them.
Connect the dots: Your wages are the economy's way of rewarding you for providing labour - the more valuable your contribution, the higher your potential earnings.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
11
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore key concepts in economic methodology, including scarcity, resource allocation, and the Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF). This summary covers positive and normative statements, the factors of production, and opportunity costs, providing a comprehensive understanding of the economic problem. Ideal for exam preparation and active recall.
EconomicsExplore key concepts of scarcity, economic systems, and the factors of production in this comprehensive summary. This resource covers the nature of economic activity, the role of specialization, and the impact of different economic systems on resource allocation. Ideal for students seeking to grasp foundational economic principles and their real-world applications.
EconomicsExplore the fundamental concepts of economic scarcity, resource allocation, and opportunity cost. This summary covers the nature of economic problems, types of goods and services, and the role of economic agents. Ideal for students seeking clarity on economic methodology and decision-making processes. Key topics include economic goods, trade-offs, and the free-rider problem.
EconomicsExplore the core concepts of economics, including the nature of economic systems, the problem of scarcity, and resource allocation. This summary covers key topics such as positive and normative statements, opportunity cost, and the factors of production. Ideal for A Level Edexcel A students seeking a comprehensive understanding of economic principles.
EconomicsExplore the fundamental concepts of the economic problem, including scarcity, opportunity cost, and trade-offs. This summary covers key questions such as what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce, essential for Edexcel AS/A Level Economics. Ideal for students seeking clarity on economic principles.
EconomicsExplore key concepts in economics, including the economic problem, opportunity cost, and resource allocation. This summary covers essential topics for A-Level students, focusing on economic systems, factors of production, and the nature of economics as a social science.
EconomicsApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology