When it comes to criminal cases, there are strict rules... Show more
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Princess Jayeola
12/12/2025
Criminology
Unit 3 AC2.3 Criminology
1,342
•
12 Dec 2025
•
Understanding Unit 3 AC2.3 in Criminology
Princess Jayeola
@princessjayeola_iwzq
1 / 4
Relevance and Admissibility of Evidence
Ever wondered what happens when police break the rules to get evidence? Improperly obtained evidence occurs when prosecution uses dishonest or illegal methods, like searching without a warrant or using torture for confessions.
Judges have the power to exclude dodgy evidence under common law and the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE). They'll weigh up whether the evidence helps discover the truth against whether it makes the trial unfair.
Entrapment is another form of improper evidence gathering - think honey traps or police deception to make someone commit a crime. The Colin Stagg case is a famous example where this backfired spectacularly.
Key Point: If evidence's probative value (how useful it is) outweighs its prejudicial effect (how unfair it is), judges will usually allow it.
Pre-trial Silence and Character Evidence
Here's something that might surprise you: staying silent when arrested can actually be used against you in court! Under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, juries can draw inferences of guilt from your silence during police questioning or in court.
But don't panic - there's a crucial protection. Juries can't convict someone based solely on their silence; there must be other evidence too. You're still presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt.
Bad character evidence includes previous convictions, cautions, racism, bullying, or poor work records. The Criminal Justice Act 2003 sets out specific "gateways" for when this can be used, particularly under section 103 if it shows you have a tendency to commit similar crimes.
Remember: If bad character evidence contaminates a case, judges can direct a jury to acquit or order a retrial.
Disclosure of Evidence
Disclosure is absolutely crucial for fair trials - it's like showing your cards in a game where justice is at stake. The prosecution must share all documents they'll use and any unused material that might help the defence or undermine their own case.
This includes anything that questions witness credibility or confession reliability. The Liam Allen case in 2017 perfectly illustrates what goes wrong - his rape trial collapsed when police failed to disclose evidence showing the alleged victim had repeatedly texted him for casual sex.
Sometimes police deliberately hide evidence when they're convinced someone's guilty. This is perverting the course of justice - ironically, a crime itself! However, prosecution can seek public interest immunity certificates to protect sensitive information like national security or undercover officers' identities.
Important: Both sides have disclosure duties - defence must reveal their intended defence strategy and legal arguments.
Hearsay Rules and Exceptions
Imagine trying to convict someone based on "I heard from my mate who heard from his cousin..." - that's essentially what hearsay evidence is. It's when a witness repeats something they heard from someone else who isn't in court.
Section 114 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 defines hearsay as statements not made in oral evidence that are used to prove facts. Generally, it's not allowed because the original speaker should testify themselves - otherwise, how can you cross-examine them?
But there are exceptions to this rule. Hearsay becomes admissible when all parties agree, when judges decide it's in the interests of justice, or when the original speaker is absent, abroad, dead, unfit to testify due to fear or mental/physical condition, or has disappeared.
Think of it this way: The law wants to hear from the horse's mouth, not someone who heard it from the horse!
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This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
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Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Understanding Unit 3 AC2.3 in Criminology
Princess Jayeola
@princessjayeola_iwzq
When it comes to criminal cases, there are strict rules about what evidence can and can't be used in court. These rules exist to ensure fair trials and protect defendants' rights, but they can be quite complex to navigate.
Relevance and Admissibility of Evidence
Ever wondered what happens when police break the rules to get evidence? Improperly obtained evidence occurs when prosecution uses dishonest or illegal methods, like searching without a warrant or using torture for confessions.
Judges have the power to exclude dodgy evidence under common law and the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE). They'll weigh up whether the evidence helps discover the truth against whether it makes the trial unfair.
Entrapment is another form of improper evidence gathering - think honey traps or police deception to make someone commit a crime. The Colin Stagg case is a famous example where this backfired spectacularly.
Key Point: If evidence's probative value (how useful it is) outweighs its prejudicial effect (how unfair it is), judges will usually allow it.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Pre-trial Silence and Character Evidence
Here's something that might surprise you: staying silent when arrested can actually be used against you in court! Under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, juries can draw inferences of guilt from your silence during police questioning or in court.
But don't panic - there's a crucial protection. Juries can't convict someone based solely on their silence; there must be other evidence too. You're still presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt.
Bad character evidence includes previous convictions, cautions, racism, bullying, or poor work records. The Criminal Justice Act 2003 sets out specific "gateways" for when this can be used, particularly under section 103 if it shows you have a tendency to commit similar crimes.
Remember: If bad character evidence contaminates a case, judges can direct a jury to acquit or order a retrial.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Disclosure of Evidence
Disclosure is absolutely crucial for fair trials - it's like showing your cards in a game where justice is at stake. The prosecution must share all documents they'll use and any unused material that might help the defence or undermine their own case.
This includes anything that questions witness credibility or confession reliability. The Liam Allen case in 2017 perfectly illustrates what goes wrong - his rape trial collapsed when police failed to disclose evidence showing the alleged victim had repeatedly texted him for casual sex.
Sometimes police deliberately hide evidence when they're convinced someone's guilty. This is perverting the course of justice - ironically, a crime itself! However, prosecution can seek public interest immunity certificates to protect sensitive information like national security or undercover officers' identities.
Important: Both sides have disclosure duties - defence must reveal their intended defence strategy and legal arguments.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Hearsay Rules and Exceptions
Imagine trying to convict someone based on "I heard from my mate who heard from his cousin..." - that's essentially what hearsay evidence is. It's when a witness repeats something they heard from someone else who isn't in court.
Section 114 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 defines hearsay as statements not made in oral evidence that are used to prove facts. Generally, it's not allowed because the original speaker should testify themselves - otherwise, how can you cross-examine them?
But there are exceptions to this rule. Hearsay becomes admissible when all parties agree, when judges decide it's in the interests of justice, or when the original speaker is absent, abroad, dead, unfit to testify due to fear or mental/physical condition, or has disappeared.
Think of it this way: The law wants to hear from the horse's mouth, not someone who heard it from the horse!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Most popular content: Criminology
Most popular content in Criminology
Most popular content
English - inspector calls quotes and analysis
Quotes from every main character
English Literature10
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user