Ever wondered what makes someone a criminal, or why laws... Show more
Criminology2,552 views·Updated Jun 13, 2026·14 pagesCriminology WJEC Level 3 Unit 2 Study Guide
E
Edie Maynard@ediemaynard_njkb
1 / 10
1
of 10
Understanding Crime and Deviance
Crime isn't just "bad behaviour" - it's legally defined as breaking laws that have specific punishments attached. For someone to be convicted, there needs to be both actus reus (the guilty act) and mens rea (the guilty mind or intent).
However, some crimes don't need intent. Strict liability offences like speeding or drunk driving can convict you even without criminal intent - they're designed to regulate behaviour and keep society safe. Self-defence is an exception where reasonable force is allowed to protect yourself or others.
Deviance is broader than crime - it's any behaviour that goes against society's norms and values. Some deviant acts might be legal but still socially unacceptable (like adultery), whilst others might even be admired .
Society responds with different sanctions: informal ones like social disapproval or name-calling, and formal ones ranging from police cautions and penalty notices to court-imposed fines, community service, or prison sentences.
Quick Tip: Remember that something can be deviant without being criminal, and vice versa - context matters!
2
of 10
How Laws Change Across Cultures and Time
Laws aren't universal - they vary dramatically between countries based on culture, religion, and political systems. Homosexuality is legal in the UK due to democratic values and public acceptance, but illegal in Russia where different social attitudes prevail.
Religious influence shapes laws differently too. Adultery is legal in secular UK but punishable in Islamic countries like Saudi Arabia. Meanwhile, gun control laws reflect tragic events like Dunblane in the UK versus constitutional rights in America.
Same-sex marriage shows how laws evolve over time. From complete illegality in 1967, the UK gradually moved through decriminalisation, civil partnerships (2005), anti-discrimination laws (2010), to full marriage equality (2013) - largely thanks to campaign groups like Stonewall.
Smoking laws similarly evolved as medical evidence mounted. From no restrictions to complete public bans by 2007, with picture warnings and car restrictions following. The British Lung Foundation's campaigns helped shift public opinion and save lives.
Key Point: High-profile cases like Dunblane often trigger rapid legal changes - public pressure and expert campaigning drive reform.
3
of 10
Criminal Responsibility and Biological Theories
In England, you can be held criminally responsible from age 10. Several defences exist including diminished responsibility (reduced mental capacity), self-defence (reasonable force), and loss of control (for murder cases with reasonable triggers).
XYY syndrome offers one biological explanation for crime. Men with an extra Y chromosome may have higher testosterone, increased aggression, and lower intelligence. Prison studies show 15 in 1000 inmates have XYY compared to just 1 in 1000 in the general population.
However, the evidence isn't conclusive. Whilst Jacob's research supports overrepresentation in prisons, not all XYY males commit crimes, and environmental factors like bullying might explain the correlation.
Twin studies by Christiansen found 52% concordance rates for criminal behaviour in identical twins versus 22% in non-identical twins, suggesting genetic influence. But since it's not 100%, there's clearly no single "criminal gene" - environment matters too.
Remember: Correlation doesn't equal causation - genetic predisposition doesn't guarantee criminal behaviour.
4
of 10
Physical and Psychological Theories
Lombroso's atavism theory claimed criminals were evolutionary throwbacks with distinctive features like large jaws and prominent cheekbones. His AI correctly identified 83% of criminals from photos, but the theory has serious flaws - it lacked control groups and showed racist bias towards African features.
Sheldon's body types suggested mesomorphs (muscular builds) were more criminal due to risk-taking personalities, whilst endomorphs (larger builds) were sociable and ectomorphs (thin builds) were introverted. Research supported higher delinquency rates among mesomorphs, but this ignores that body types change over time.
Eysenck's personality theory linked crime to high scores in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism - personality traits that make people impulsive and thrill-seeking. His study of 2000 male prisoners showed higher E/N/P scores than controls.
Hostile attribution bias explains how some people interpret neutral situations as threatening. Adults with high levels are four times more likely to die violently by age 50, and offenders consistently see ambiguous facial expressions as hostile compared to non-offenders.
Critical Thinking: Most of these theories focus only on male criminality and ignore environmental factors - always question the limitations!
5
of 10
Psychodynamic and Learning Theories
Freud's psychoanalysis suggests criminal behaviour stems from an imbalanced psyche. If your superego (conscience) is too weak, you'll act on the id's criminal urges without guilt. If it's too harsh, you'll commit crimes seeking punishment you think you deserve.
Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory argues that breaking the primary bond with your mother causes affectionless psychopathy and criminal behaviour. His study of 44 thieves found most had been separated from their mothers. Today, children in care represent 1% of the population but 25% of prisoners.
Social learning theory explains crime as learned behaviour through observation and imitation. Bandura's famous bobo doll experiment showed children copying violent behaviour they'd witnessed. Criminal behaviour is more likely when you identify with the role model and see them rewarded.
Operant conditioning suggests crime continues when it's rewarded (positive reinforcement) or helps avoid unpleasant consequences (negative reinforcement). Token economies in prisons successfully reduce aggressive behaviour by rewarding good conduct, though effects don't always last after release.
Real-World Application: Understanding these theories helps explain cases like the Jamie Bulger murder, where children may have imitated violent media content.
6
of 10
Social Structure Theories
Marxist theory argues that capitalism itself causes crime. The bourgeoisie (ruling class) exploit the proletariat (working class), forcing them into crime to survive. Consumerism creates desires for goods people can't afford, whilst lawmakers and police show bias towards the wealthy. Carson's research found corporate crimes were rarely prosecuted.
Durkheim's functionalism suggests crime actually serves society by maintaining boundaries, enabling social change, and acting as a "safety valve". However, when too many people break norms, anomie (normlessness) occurs, leading to increased criminality.
Merton's strain theory focuses on the gap between society's goals (like the "American dream") and legitimate means to achieve them. People respond through conformity, ritualism, innovation (turning to crime), retreatism, or rebellion. Baumer and Gustafson found higher crime rates in areas obsessed with money but lacking legitimate opportunities.
Labelling theory argues that being branded a criminal creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. Primary deviance is the initial act, but secondary deviance occurs when society's labelling pushes people deeper into criminal identity. Piliavin and Briar found police arrest decisions were based on appearance and manner, not just behaviour.
Think About It: These theories explain why working-class crimes get more attention than white-collar crimes - it's about who has the power to define what counts as "real" crime.
7
of 10
Realist Approaches and Crime Control Policies
Right realism blames individuals and families for crime. Murray identifies three factors: biological differences in the underclass, poor socialisation creating "feral children", and rational choice theory where people commit crimes when benefits outweigh costs. New York's zero tolerance policy supported this by rapidly reducing key crimes.
Left realism blames society instead, focusing on marginalisation (lack of opportunities), relative deprivation (feeling deprived compared to others), and subcultures that develop when legitimate goals are blocked. They argue community prevention measures work better than punishment alone.
Crime control uses both formal policies (government and police actions) and informal policies . Token economies in prisons reward good behaviour but don't always work after release. Psychoanalysis aims to repair damaged personalities but requires willing patients and costs around £100 per hour.
The death penalty represents the most extreme biological policy, aiming to prevent criminal genes being passed on. However, US states with death penalties often have higher murder rates than those without, suggesting it doesn't work as a deterrent.
Policy Reality: Most effective approaches combine multiple strategies - there's no single solution to crime that works in isolation.
8
of 10
9
of 10
10
of 10
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Criminology2,552 views·Updated Jun 13, 2026·14 pagesCriminology WJEC Level 3 Unit 2 Study Guide
E
Edie Maynard@ediemaynard_njkb
Ever wondered what makes someone a criminal, or why laws change over time? This study explores the fascinating world of crime and deviance, examining everything from biological theories to how society shapes criminal behaviour. You'll discover the key concepts that... Show more
1
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Understanding Crime and Deviance
Crime isn't just "bad behaviour" - it's legally defined as breaking laws that have specific punishments attached. For someone to be convicted, there needs to be both actus reus (the guilty act) and mens rea (the guilty mind or intent).
However, some crimes don't need intent. Strict liability offences like speeding or drunk driving can convict you even without criminal intent - they're designed to regulate behaviour and keep society safe. Self-defence is an exception where reasonable force is allowed to protect yourself or others.
Deviance is broader than crime - it's any behaviour that goes against society's norms and values. Some deviant acts might be legal but still socially unacceptable (like adultery), whilst others might even be admired .
Society responds with different sanctions: informal ones like social disapproval or name-calling, and formal ones ranging from police cautions and penalty notices to court-imposed fines, community service, or prison sentences.
Quick Tip: Remember that something can be deviant without being criminal, and vice versa - context matters!
2
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
How Laws Change Across Cultures and Time
Laws aren't universal - they vary dramatically between countries based on culture, religion, and political systems. Homosexuality is legal in the UK due to democratic values and public acceptance, but illegal in Russia where different social attitudes prevail.
Religious influence shapes laws differently too. Adultery is legal in secular UK but punishable in Islamic countries like Saudi Arabia. Meanwhile, gun control laws reflect tragic events like Dunblane in the UK versus constitutional rights in America.
Same-sex marriage shows how laws evolve over time. From complete illegality in 1967, the UK gradually moved through decriminalisation, civil partnerships (2005), anti-discrimination laws (2010), to full marriage equality (2013) - largely thanks to campaign groups like Stonewall.
Smoking laws similarly evolved as medical evidence mounted. From no restrictions to complete public bans by 2007, with picture warnings and car restrictions following. The British Lung Foundation's campaigns helped shift public opinion and save lives.
Key Point: High-profile cases like Dunblane often trigger rapid legal changes - public pressure and expert campaigning drive reform.
3
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Criminal Responsibility and Biological Theories
In England, you can be held criminally responsible from age 10. Several defences exist including diminished responsibility (reduced mental capacity), self-defence (reasonable force), and loss of control (for murder cases with reasonable triggers).
XYY syndrome offers one biological explanation for crime. Men with an extra Y chromosome may have higher testosterone, increased aggression, and lower intelligence. Prison studies show 15 in 1000 inmates have XYY compared to just 1 in 1000 in the general population.
However, the evidence isn't conclusive. Whilst Jacob's research supports overrepresentation in prisons, not all XYY males commit crimes, and environmental factors like bullying might explain the correlation.
Twin studies by Christiansen found 52% concordance rates for criminal behaviour in identical twins versus 22% in non-identical twins, suggesting genetic influence. But since it's not 100%, there's clearly no single "criminal gene" - environment matters too.
Remember: Correlation doesn't equal causation - genetic predisposition doesn't guarantee criminal behaviour.
4
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Physical and Psychological Theories
Lombroso's atavism theory claimed criminals were evolutionary throwbacks with distinctive features like large jaws and prominent cheekbones. His AI correctly identified 83% of criminals from photos, but the theory has serious flaws - it lacked control groups and showed racist bias towards African features.
Sheldon's body types suggested mesomorphs (muscular builds) were more criminal due to risk-taking personalities, whilst endomorphs (larger builds) were sociable and ectomorphs (thin builds) were introverted. Research supported higher delinquency rates among mesomorphs, but this ignores that body types change over time.
Eysenck's personality theory linked crime to high scores in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism - personality traits that make people impulsive and thrill-seeking. His study of 2000 male prisoners showed higher E/N/P scores than controls.
Hostile attribution bias explains how some people interpret neutral situations as threatening. Adults with high levels are four times more likely to die violently by age 50, and offenders consistently see ambiguous facial expressions as hostile compared to non-offenders.
Critical Thinking: Most of these theories focus only on male criminality and ignore environmental factors - always question the limitations!
5
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
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Psychodynamic and Learning Theories
Freud's psychoanalysis suggests criminal behaviour stems from an imbalanced psyche. If your superego (conscience) is too weak, you'll act on the id's criminal urges without guilt. If it's too harsh, you'll commit crimes seeking punishment you think you deserve.
Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory argues that breaking the primary bond with your mother causes affectionless psychopathy and criminal behaviour. His study of 44 thieves found most had been separated from their mothers. Today, children in care represent 1% of the population but 25% of prisoners.
Social learning theory explains crime as learned behaviour through observation and imitation. Bandura's famous bobo doll experiment showed children copying violent behaviour they'd witnessed. Criminal behaviour is more likely when you identify with the role model and see them rewarded.
Operant conditioning suggests crime continues when it's rewarded (positive reinforcement) or helps avoid unpleasant consequences (negative reinforcement). Token economies in prisons successfully reduce aggressive behaviour by rewarding good conduct, though effects don't always last after release.
Real-World Application: Understanding these theories helps explain cases like the Jamie Bulger murder, where children may have imitated violent media content.
6
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
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Social Structure Theories
Marxist theory argues that capitalism itself causes crime. The bourgeoisie (ruling class) exploit the proletariat (working class), forcing them into crime to survive. Consumerism creates desires for goods people can't afford, whilst lawmakers and police show bias towards the wealthy. Carson's research found corporate crimes were rarely prosecuted.
Durkheim's functionalism suggests crime actually serves society by maintaining boundaries, enabling social change, and acting as a "safety valve". However, when too many people break norms, anomie (normlessness) occurs, leading to increased criminality.
Merton's strain theory focuses on the gap between society's goals (like the "American dream") and legitimate means to achieve them. People respond through conformity, ritualism, innovation (turning to crime), retreatism, or rebellion. Baumer and Gustafson found higher crime rates in areas obsessed with money but lacking legitimate opportunities.
Labelling theory argues that being branded a criminal creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. Primary deviance is the initial act, but secondary deviance occurs when society's labelling pushes people deeper into criminal identity. Piliavin and Briar found police arrest decisions were based on appearance and manner, not just behaviour.
Think About It: These theories explain why working-class crimes get more attention than white-collar crimes - it's about who has the power to define what counts as "real" crime.
7
of 10Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Realist Approaches and Crime Control Policies
Right realism blames individuals and families for crime. Murray identifies three factors: biological differences in the underclass, poor socialisation creating "feral children", and rational choice theory where people commit crimes when benefits outweigh costs. New York's zero tolerance policy supported this by rapidly reducing key crimes.
Left realism blames society instead, focusing on marginalisation (lack of opportunities), relative deprivation (feeling deprived compared to others), and subcultures that develop when legitimate goals are blocked. They argue community prevention measures work better than punishment alone.
Crime control uses both formal policies (government and police actions) and informal policies . Token economies in prisons reward good behaviour but don't always work after release. Psychoanalysis aims to repair damaged personalities but requires willing patients and costs around £100 per hour.
The death penalty represents the most extreme biological policy, aiming to prevent criminal genes being passed on. However, US states with death penalties often have higher murder rates than those without, suggesting it doesn't work as a deterrent.
Policy Reality: Most effective approaches combine multiple strategies - there's no single solution to crime that works in isolation.
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We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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126,831159
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Explore the essential rules governing the use of evidence in criminal cases, including reliability, admissibility, and relevance. This summary covers key concepts such as the roles of personnel in investigations, the impact of witness testimonies, and the implications of plea bargaining. Ideal for Year 13 criminology students preparing for assessments.
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SociologySociology of Families: Comprehensive Revision
Dive into an extensive overview of family dynamics, perspectives, and patterns in sociology. This resource covers key concepts such as family diversity, gender roles, marriage, and the impact of social policies on family structures. Perfect for A-Level Sociology students preparing for Paper 2.
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CriminologyCriminology: Crime & Punishment Overview
Comprehensive mindmaps covering key concepts in the Crime and Punishment topic for WJEC Criminology Unit 4. This resource includes detailed insights into the Criminal Justice System, crime prevention strategies, sentencing models, and the roles of various agencies. Ideal for A-Level revision, ensuring you grasp essential theories and legislative processes to excel in your exams.
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Explore an extensive revision of crime and deviance topics, including theories, types of crime, and the impact of media. This resource covers key concepts such as Marxism, functionalism, gender and crime, and the influence of globalization on criminal behavior. Ideal for students seeking a thorough understanding of criminology and its various theories. Type: Full Topic Revision.
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English LiteratureAn Inspector Calls: Character Insights
Explore in-depth analysis and key quotes for characters in J.B. Priestley's 'An Inspector Calls'. This resource covers Gerald Croft, Inspector Goole, Sheila Birling, Mrs. Birling, Eric Birling, and Eva Smith, focusing on themes of class, gender roles, and social responsibility. Ideal for students aiming for Grade 8 and above.
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Explore key criminology theories and their implications on crime and deviance. This comprehensive summary covers biological, psychological, and sociological perspectives, including labelling theory, right realism, and the impact of social campaigns on policy development. Ideal for A-Level criminology students seeking to understand the complexities of criminal behaviour and the factors influencing crime prevention strategies.
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