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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
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Chemistry
4 Dec 2025
188
6 pages
Lara @lydiamyst
Understanding how atoms attract electrons in chemical bonds is crucial for predicting molecular behaviour and properties. Electronegativity differences... Show more
Think of electronegativity as an atom's greediness for electrons in a covalent bond - the higher the value, the more it wants those electrons for itself. When two atoms with different electronegativities bond, the electron pair gets pulled more towards the greedier atom, creating an uneven distribution.
This uneven sharing creates polar covalent bonds, which can give entire molecules a permanent dipole (like a tiny magnet with positive and negative ends). The Pauling scale measures this electron-attracting power from 0 to 4, making it easy to compare different elements.
Three key factors determine an atom's electronegativity nuclear charge , distance from nucleus , and electron shielding . These factors work together to create predictable patterns across the periodic table.
Key Insight Electronegativity isn't just theory - it directly affects whether molecules will dissolve in water, their boiling points, and how they interact with other substances.
Electronegativity increases as you move up a group (smaller atoms, less shielding) and across a period (more protons, same shielding). This makes nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine the most electronegative elements - they're the ultimate electron hogs in the top right corner of the periodic table.
Polar bonds form when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally. Compare F-F (both identical, so electrons shared equally) with H-F (fluorine pulls electrons towards itself, creating an uneven electron cloud).
When electronegativity differences create uneven electron distribution, you get a dipole - essentially a molecular magnet. The more electronegative atom becomes slightly negative (δ⁻), whilst the less electronegative atom becomes slightly positive (δ⁺).
Remember A difference in electronegativity of 0.4 or more typically creates a noticeable polar bond that affects the molecule's properties.
The dipole charges in polar molecules are shown using delta notation δ⁺H—Fδ⁻, where hydrogen is "delta positive" and fluorine is "delta negative". These partial charges are weaker than full ionic charges but still create significant attractions between molecules.
Intermolecular forces are the attractions between separate molecules that determine physical properties like melting and boiling points. There are three main types, arranged from weakest to strongest induced dipole-dipole forces (van der Waals), permanent dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding.
Understanding these forces helps predict molecular behaviour. Stronger intermolecular forces mean higher boiling points because more energy is needed to separate the molecules.
Study Tip Remember the strength order - van der Waals (weakest), permanent dipole-dipole (medium), hydrogen bonding (strongest). This sequence appears frequently in exam questions.
Van der Waals forces exist between all atoms and molecules because electron clouds are constantly shifting. Even in non-polar molecules, electrons move around creating temporary dipoles that induce dipoles in neighbouring molecules - it's like a constantly changing dance of attractions.
These temporary dipoles are always changing direction as electrons move, but there's always some attraction present. The larger the electron cloud, the stronger these forces become, which explains why larger molecules generally have higher boiling points.
Permanent dipole-dipole forces occur between molecules that have permanent dipoles due to significant electronegativity differences (>0.4). Unlike van der Waals forces, these attractions are consistent because the dipoles don't change direction.
Real-world Connection Van der Waals forces explain why even noble gases can be liquefied at low temperatures - there's always some intermolecular attraction, no matter how weak.
The dipole moment represents the overall polarity effect of all bonds in a molecule. Here's the tricky bit molecules with multiple polar bonds aren't always polar overall because the effects can cancel each other out.
Molecular symmetry is key - if polar bonds are arranged symmetrically, they counteract each other, creating a non-polar molecule despite having polar bonds. Think of it like a tug-of-war where equal forces in opposite directions result in no movement.
Water (H₂O) is a perfect example of an asymmetric molecule where the polar bonds don't cancel out, creating a permanent dipole. This asymmetry is why water has such unique properties and can dissolve so many substances.
Exam Focus Questions often test whether you can predict molecular polarity by considering both individual bond polarity and overall molecular shape.
Hydrogen bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular force - a special dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between hydrogen and the "big three" electronegative atoms nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine. The hydrogen must be directly bonded to one of these atoms to create the necessary strong δ⁺ charge.
This force exists between a lone pair of electrons on N, O, or F and a highly positive hydrogen atom. The combination of hydrogen's small size and large partial positive charge creates an unusually strong intermolecular attraction.
Water molecules demonstrate hydrogen bonding beautifully, with each oxygen atom forming hydrogen bonds with nearby hydrogen atoms from other water molecules. This explains water's high boiling point, surface tension, and ability to support life.
Biology Connection Hydrogen bonding is crucial in biological molecules - it maintains protein structure, holds DNA strands together, and enables water's unique life-supporting properties.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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Explore a comprehensive flowchart detailing the mechanisms of organic synthesis, including reactions involving esters, nitriles, alkanes, and more. This resource covers key concepts such as acid-base catalysis, nucleophilic substitution, and electrophilic addition, making it essential for students studying organic chemistry. Ideal for exam preparation and understanding complex reaction pathways.
ChemistryExplore essential chemistry terms and definitions, including aldehydes, ketones, intermolecular forces, and titration techniques. This summary provides clear explanations of key concepts such as percent yield, atom economy, and the role of hydrogen bonds in chemical reactions. Ideal for students preparing for exams or seeking to enhance their understanding of higher chemistry topics.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of chemical bonding, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. Understand bond polarity, molecular geometry, and intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces. This summary covers key concepts like electronegativity, VSEPR theory, and the properties of various bonding types, making it essential for AQA A-Level Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including oxidation and reduction processes, and the role of acids and bases in chemical reactions. This summary covers key concepts such as oxidizing and reducing agents, acid-base neutralization, and titration techniques, essential for A-Level Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore key concepts in organic chemistry, including esters, carboxylic acids, oxidation-reduction reactions, and the chemistry of fats and proteins. This comprehensive summary covers essential topics such as saponification, emulsifiers, and the role of functional groups in molecular structure. Ideal for students preparing for higher chemistry exams.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including oxidation and reduction processes, oxidation states, and half-equations. This summary provides clear definitions and rules for identifying oxidizing and reducing agents, making it an essential resource for AQA AS Physical Chemistry students.
ChemistryApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Lara
@lydiamyst
Understanding how atoms attract electrons in chemical bonds is crucial for predicting molecular behaviour and properties. Electronegativity differences create polar bonds and intermolecular forces that determine everything from boiling points to protein structures.
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Think of electronegativity as an atom's greediness for electrons in a covalent bond - the higher the value, the more it wants those electrons for itself. When two atoms with different electronegativities bond, the electron pair gets pulled more towards the greedier atom, creating an uneven distribution.
This uneven sharing creates polar covalent bonds, which can give entire molecules a permanent dipole (like a tiny magnet with positive and negative ends). The Pauling scale measures this electron-attracting power from 0 to 4, making it easy to compare different elements.
Three key factors determine an atom's electronegativity: nuclear charge , distance from nucleus , and electron shielding . These factors work together to create predictable patterns across the periodic table.
Key Insight: Electronegativity isn't just theory - it directly affects whether molecules will dissolve in water, their boiling points, and how they interact with other substances.
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Electronegativity increases as you move up a group (smaller atoms, less shielding) and across a period (more protons, same shielding). This makes nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine the most electronegative elements - they're the ultimate electron hogs in the top right corner of the periodic table.
Polar bonds form when atoms with different electronegativities share electrons unequally. Compare F-F (both identical, so electrons shared equally) with H-F (fluorine pulls electrons towards itself, creating an uneven electron cloud).
When electronegativity differences create uneven electron distribution, you get a dipole - essentially a molecular magnet. The more electronegative atom becomes slightly negative (δ⁻), whilst the less electronegative atom becomes slightly positive (δ⁺).
Remember: A difference in electronegativity of 0.4 or more typically creates a noticeable polar bond that affects the molecule's properties.
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The dipole charges in polar molecules are shown using delta notation: δ⁺H—Fδ⁻, where hydrogen is "delta positive" and fluorine is "delta negative". These partial charges are weaker than full ionic charges but still create significant attractions between molecules.
Intermolecular forces are the attractions between separate molecules that determine physical properties like melting and boiling points. There are three main types, arranged from weakest to strongest: induced dipole-dipole forces (van der Waals), permanent dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding.
Understanding these forces helps predict molecular behaviour. Stronger intermolecular forces mean higher boiling points because more energy is needed to separate the molecules.
Study Tip: Remember the strength order - van der Waals (weakest), permanent dipole-dipole (medium), hydrogen bonding (strongest). This sequence appears frequently in exam questions.
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Van der Waals forces exist between all atoms and molecules because electron clouds are constantly shifting. Even in non-polar molecules, electrons move around creating temporary dipoles that induce dipoles in neighbouring molecules - it's like a constantly changing dance of attractions.
These temporary dipoles are always changing direction as electrons move, but there's always some attraction present. The larger the electron cloud, the stronger these forces become, which explains why larger molecules generally have higher boiling points.
Permanent dipole-dipole forces occur between molecules that have permanent dipoles due to significant electronegativity differences (>0.4). Unlike van der Waals forces, these attractions are consistent because the dipoles don't change direction.
Real-world Connection: Van der Waals forces explain why even noble gases can be liquefied at low temperatures - there's always some intermolecular attraction, no matter how weak.
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The dipole moment represents the overall polarity effect of all bonds in a molecule. Here's the tricky bit: molecules with multiple polar bonds aren't always polar overall because the effects can cancel each other out.
Molecular symmetry is key - if polar bonds are arranged symmetrically, they counteract each other, creating a non-polar molecule despite having polar bonds. Think of it like a tug-of-war where equal forces in opposite directions result in no movement.
Water (H₂O) is a perfect example of an asymmetric molecule where the polar bonds don't cancel out, creating a permanent dipole. This asymmetry is why water has such unique properties and can dissolve so many substances.
Exam Focus: Questions often test whether you can predict molecular polarity by considering both individual bond polarity and overall molecular shape.
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Hydrogen bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular force - a special dipole-dipole attraction that occurs between hydrogen and the "big three" electronegative atoms: nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine. The hydrogen must be directly bonded to one of these atoms to create the necessary strong δ⁺ charge.
This force exists between a lone pair of electrons on N, O, or F and a highly positive hydrogen atom. The combination of hydrogen's small size and large partial positive charge creates an unusually strong intermolecular attraction.
Water molecules demonstrate hydrogen bonding beautifully, with each oxygen atom forming hydrogen bonds with nearby hydrogen atoms from other water molecules. This explains water's high boiling point, surface tension, and ability to support life.
Biology Connection: Hydrogen bonding is crucial in biological molecules - it maintains protein structure, holds DNA strands together, and enables water's unique life-supporting properties.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
15
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Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore a comprehensive flowchart detailing the mechanisms of organic synthesis, including reactions involving esters, nitriles, alkanes, and more. This resource covers key concepts such as acid-base catalysis, nucleophilic substitution, and electrophilic addition, making it essential for students studying organic chemistry. Ideal for exam preparation and understanding complex reaction pathways.
ChemistryExplore essential chemistry terms and definitions, including aldehydes, ketones, intermolecular forces, and titration techniques. This summary provides clear explanations of key concepts such as percent yield, atom economy, and the role of hydrogen bonds in chemical reactions. Ideal for students preparing for exams or seeking to enhance their understanding of higher chemistry topics.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of chemical bonding, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds. Understand bond polarity, molecular geometry, and intermolecular forces such as hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces. This summary covers key concepts like electronegativity, VSEPR theory, and the properties of various bonding types, making it essential for AQA A-Level Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including oxidation and reduction processes, and the role of acids and bases in chemical reactions. This summary covers key concepts such as oxidizing and reducing agents, acid-base neutralization, and titration techniques, essential for A-Level Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore key concepts in organic chemistry, including esters, carboxylic acids, oxidation-reduction reactions, and the chemistry of fats and proteins. This comprehensive summary covers essential topics such as saponification, emulsifiers, and the role of functional groups in molecular structure. Ideal for students preparing for higher chemistry exams.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including oxidation and reduction processes, oxidation states, and half-equations. This summary provides clear definitions and rules for identifying oxidizing and reducing agents, making it an essential resource for AQA AS Physical Chemistry students.
ChemistryApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology