Subjects
Maths
Chemistry
Biology
English Language
History
Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
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Biology
8 Dec 2025
437
2 pages
Maya A @maya.ah
Translation is the second stage of protein synthesis where your cells actually build proteins using the genetic instructions... Show more
Translation kicks off when a ribosome attaches to the start codon (AUG) on an mRNA molecule in your cell's cytoplasm. This is like finding the "start here" instruction on a complex assembly manual.
Here's where it gets clever tRNA molecules act as delivery trucks, each carrying a specific amino acid and sporting a unique anticodon that matches perfectly with codons on the mRNA. The first tRNA with anticodon UAC pairs up with the start codon, delivering methionine as the first amino acid.
The ribosome works like a molecular factory, holding two tRNA molecules at once whilst they pair up with their corresponding codons. Once positioned correctly, the amino acids get joined together by a peptide bond - this reaction needs energy from ATP to make it happen.
Key Point Each tRNA has its own specific anticodon and carries only one type of amino acid, ensuring proteins are built with perfect accuracy.
The ribosome moves along the mRNA like a scanner, reading each codon in sequence and adding up to 15 amino acids per second. As it shifts to the next codon, the previous tRNA gets released and can collect another amino acid from the cell's amino acid pool - it's like a recycling system.
Multiple ribosomes can work on the same mRNA simultaneously, with up to 50 ribosomes trailing behind each other. This polyribosome setup means your cells can mass-produce identical proteins incredibly efficiently.
Translation stops when the ribosome hits a stop codon, causing everything to separate and release the completed polypeptide chain. The chain then folds into its secondary and tertiary structures, and may combine with other polypeptides to form the final functional protein.
Remember The DNA sequence determines the mRNA codons, which determine the tRNA order, which determines the amino acid sequence - it's a perfect chain of genetic information transfer.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
8
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the structure and function of amino acids and proteins in this detailed summary. Learn about peptide bonds, hydrolysis, and the role of enzymes in protein synthesis. This resource covers the essential components of amino acids, including their unique R groups, and how they combine to form polypeptides and proteins. Ideal for students studying biological molecules.
BiologyExplore the intricate structure of bacterial cells, focusing on gram-negative and gram-positive classifications, the role of peptidoglycan, and the mechanisms of antibiotic action. This summary covers key concepts such as cell membranes, ribosomes, and genetic material, providing essential insights for A-Level Biology students. Ideal for understanding bacterial features and antibiotic resistance.
BiologyExplore the essential structures of proteins, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary forms. This summary covers amino acids, peptide bonds, and examples of globular and fibrous proteins, such as hemoglobin and collagen. Ideal for AQA A-Level Biology students seeking a clear understanding of protein composition and function.
BiologyExplore the differences between light and electron microscopes, including their structures, magnification capabilities, and applications in viewing cellular details. This summary provides essential insights into how these instruments enhance our understanding of microscopic life.
BiologyExplore the essential roles of digestive enzymes in breaking down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. This summary covers the functions of lipases, proteases, and amylase, detailing their sources and the digestion process. Ideal for biology students seeking to understand nutrient absorption and enzyme activity.
BiologyExplore the formation and functions of triglycerides and phospholipids, including ester bonds, energy storage, and membrane structure. This summary covers key concepts such as cholesterol's role in membrane fluidity and the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of lipids. Ideal for students studying lipid biochemistry.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Maya A
@maya.ah
Translation is the second stage of protein synthesis where your cells actually build proteins using the genetic instructions from mRNA. Think of it like following a recipe - the mRNA provides the instructions, and special molecules called tRNA deliver the... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Translation kicks off when a ribosome attaches to the start codon (AUG) on an mRNA molecule in your cell's cytoplasm. This is like finding the "start here" instruction on a complex assembly manual.
Here's where it gets clever: tRNA molecules act as delivery trucks, each carrying a specific amino acid and sporting a unique anticodon that matches perfectly with codons on the mRNA. The first tRNA with anticodon UAC pairs up with the start codon, delivering methionine as the first amino acid.
The ribosome works like a molecular factory, holding two tRNA molecules at once whilst they pair up with their corresponding codons. Once positioned correctly, the amino acids get joined together by a peptide bond - this reaction needs energy from ATP to make it happen.
Key Point: Each tRNA has its own specific anticodon and carries only one type of amino acid, ensuring proteins are built with perfect accuracy.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The ribosome moves along the mRNA like a scanner, reading each codon in sequence and adding up to 15 amino acids per second. As it shifts to the next codon, the previous tRNA gets released and can collect another amino acid from the cell's amino acid pool - it's like a recycling system.
Multiple ribosomes can work on the same mRNA simultaneously, with up to 50 ribosomes trailing behind each other. This polyribosome setup means your cells can mass-produce identical proteins incredibly efficiently.
Translation stops when the ribosome hits a stop codon, causing everything to separate and release the completed polypeptide chain. The chain then folds into its secondary and tertiary structures, and may combine with other polypeptides to form the final functional protein.
Remember: The DNA sequence determines the mRNA codons, which determine the tRNA order, which determines the amino acid sequence - it's a perfect chain of genetic information transfer.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
8
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the structure and function of amino acids and proteins in this detailed summary. Learn about peptide bonds, hydrolysis, and the role of enzymes in protein synthesis. This resource covers the essential components of amino acids, including their unique R groups, and how they combine to form polypeptides and proteins. Ideal for students studying biological molecules.
BiologyExplore the intricate structure of bacterial cells, focusing on gram-negative and gram-positive classifications, the role of peptidoglycan, and the mechanisms of antibiotic action. This summary covers key concepts such as cell membranes, ribosomes, and genetic material, providing essential insights for A-Level Biology students. Ideal for understanding bacterial features and antibiotic resistance.
BiologyExplore the essential structures of proteins, including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary forms. This summary covers amino acids, peptide bonds, and examples of globular and fibrous proteins, such as hemoglobin and collagen. Ideal for AQA A-Level Biology students seeking a clear understanding of protein composition and function.
BiologyExplore the differences between light and electron microscopes, including their structures, magnification capabilities, and applications in viewing cellular details. This summary provides essential insights into how these instruments enhance our understanding of microscopic life.
BiologyExplore the essential roles of digestive enzymes in breaking down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. This summary covers the functions of lipases, proteases, and amylase, detailing their sources and the digestion process. Ideal for biology students seeking to understand nutrient absorption and enzyme activity.
BiologyExplore the formation and functions of triglycerides and phospholipids, including ester bonds, energy storage, and membrane structure. This summary covers key concepts such as cholesterol's role in membrane fluidity and the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of lipids. Ideal for students studying lipid biochemistry.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology