Multicellular Biology Revision Cards

Alternative transcript:

in glocose must be released (respiration). respiration happens in every cell. ↳ respiration is a series of enzym-controlled reactions. glucose breaks down respiration releases energy ↓ energy used to make ATP ATP Hransfers chemical energy-used for active transport CELL PROCESSES cou divition/milosis moking Proteins GENETIC ENGINEERING Genetic engineering is genetic information (eg. gene) being transferred from one cell to another. Example - Human Insulin (for diabetes). Didentify the required gene (insulin gene) from the chromosome. enzymes are used to cut the gene out of the chromosome. Da plasmid is removed from a bacterial cell and cut open using enzymes. enzymes seal the insulin gene into the plasmid. Ⓒaltered plasmid returned to a new bacterial cell as bacha cells make insulin. Bateria reproduces and insulin is collected. DNA DNA is a double stranded helix held by Complementary base pairs. The four bases; adenine,cytosine, guainine and thymine, make up the genetic code. C&G are always paired. A&T are always paired The base sequence determinds amino acids sequence in proteins. A gene is a section of DNA which codes for a protein. ENZYMES An enzyme is a biological catalyst in all living cells that speed up cellular reactions whithout being changed in the proccess. The shape of the active site of an enzyme molecule is complementary to its specific substrate (s). Enzyme actions result in products). Enzyme Reaction-Degradation (Breakdown). enzyme Substrate G unchanged enzyme substate Enzyme Reaction-Synthesis (Build up). Cube enzyme + D products C unchanged enzyme Product at the active Site. enzyme fits the Substrate. 3 enzyme unchanged and products formed. O at the active site enzyme fils supstrates 3 enzyme unchanged and product formed. Each enzyme is most active in its optimum condition. Enzymes and other proteins can be effected by temperature and pH. Enzymes can be denatured, resulting in a change in their shape which will effect the rate of reaction. MAKING PROTEINS DNA mRNA messenger RNA (mRNA) is a molecule which carries a copy of the genetic code from the DNA, in the nucleus, to a ribosome. at a riposome proteins are made by joining amino acids. ribosomes amino acids proteins TYPES OF PROTEIN Different shapes of proteins exsit as the amino acids order is different. These proteins have different FUNCHONS: Structural -makes up parts of cell/organism/ material (eg. spider silk). •Enzymes -biogogical catalst that speeds up chemical reactions in living cells. • Hormones -chemical mesengers in the body. Antibodies-chemicals made by white blood cells to fight infection. Receptors-on surface, match specific hormones, hormones only expect the target tissue with correct receptors. ACTIVE TRANSPORT Active transport requires energy for membrane proteins to move molecules and ions against the concentration gradient (lower to higher concentration). outside cell Cell membrane 0 ☐=sodium ions inside cel DIFFUSION Diffusion is the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient from a higher to lower concentration. This does not require energy. Outside cell O O O O O O cell membrane O 0 = oxygen O inside cell O PASSIVE TRANSPORT ↳ Passive transport occurs down a concentration gradient. Does not require energy examples are diffusion or osmosis. CELL MEMBRANE Cell membrane is made up of phospholipids and Proteins. It is selectivity permable as it lets through smaller molecules but not larger. phospholipids ů 9 9 9 9 9 J J G Y Y Y Y Y ő Proteins VA 100 охудеть •nign temperatures damadge proteins ••ethanol damadges phospholipids. OSMOSIS Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a higher to lower concentration. This does not require energy. type of cell animal cell animal cell plant cell -H₂O Plant cell > H₂O -H₂0 7+4₂0 plased in higher water concentration lower water concentration higher water concentration lower water concentration result cell swe & bursts cell shrinks) ог Shrivals Cell becomes turgid (cell wa Stops bursting cell is plasmas (eell contents pull away from) cell wall. CELL FUNCTIONS nucleus-contains genetic material (DNA), controls cell activity. cell membrane-controls what enters and leaves the cell. ribosomes - site of protein synthesis. cell sap of chemical reactions vacuhole-stores cytoplasm-site Plasmids-small rings of DNA, nas genes chiorapasts-site of photosynthesis. mitochondia-site of aerobic respiration. cell wall-supports cell, plant cell walls are made of cellulose and in fungal and bacterial cells its made of different materials. CELL STRUCTURE plant cell Lomitochondria nucleus cell memprane cytoplasm cell wall chlorapasts vacuhole ribosomes O #1 Fungal cell ↳cell wall ↳nudeus cell membrane ribosomes mitochondria cytoplasm (O C animal cell cell membrane ↳nucleus Locytoplasm ribosomes mitochondria O bacterial cell cell wall ↳ cell membrane cytoplasm ribosomes Plasmids PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEM leaf veins nove xylem vessels and phloem. Scylem vessels phloem Sugar •hollow tubes •dead ● lignin rings Strengths the xylem vessels. transport water and minerals upwards. seive end Plates. companion cells Phloem mesophyl- leaf vein with Xylem s phloem lower epidemis • transports sugar upwards and down words. • Phloem is living. Leaf Structure Palisade does respiration to release energy. upper épidermis Spongy mesophi cells w air space. guard cells w Stomata inside Upper epidermis - transparent to let light into leaf guard cells-open and close the stotama Stomata - water evaporates out, coz enters leaf. Palisade mesophyl-some photosynthesis, air spaces Spongy allow gases and H₂O to move. Palisade mesophyl-mast photosynthesis (nas lots of Chlorapasts at top of leaf, packed together). transpiration water evaporating from leaves into air (comes out of Stomata) Stream Leaves roots water enters root hair cells by osmosis. 2 water moves up in the xylem. Soil 3 water evaporates into air out of the Stomata as temperature increases so does transpiration. as wind speed increases so does transpiration. Q open stomata • as area increased so does Hansipation as humidity increases transpiration decreases. A potometer is used to measure transpiration. > guard cells closed stomata NERVOUS SYSTEMS The nervous system is composed of two parts: 1. Central Nervous System (CNS) - 2. Nerves-connects the CNS to all parts of the body. Structure of brain cerebrum medulla Stimulus detected by receptor. e.g.eyes Sence Organs -made up of the brain and spinal cord. sensory neaurons cerebellem neurons (nerve cells) in neurons, information is passed through electric impulses. There are 3 forms of neurons : Sensory Neurons Carry information from sence organs to CNS. Ocerebrum controls reasoning, memory and thoughts. medulla controls breathing and neart rate. cerebellum controls balance and co-ordination. Inter Neurons Opperate withen the CNS and proccess information from sences. e.g. brain /spinal cord Central Nervous System reflex actions reflex actions are an involantary responce to a harmful situation to protect yourself. Lno Drain involvemant. responce from muscles are fast and responce from glands (making chemicals) are slower. Motor Neurons Carry information from the CNS to effectors for a responce (muscles or glands). motor neurons =responce e.g. muscle/glands effectors synapses synapses are gaps between neurons that the electrical impulse has to cross to pass on its message. Information is carried accross the synapses by chemicals - This happens more slowly. HORMONES Chemical messengers Endocrine glands release normones into the bloodstream. Hormones only effect target tissues as the cells nave complementary receptor for hormones. blood glucose regulations Insulin-hormone that changes glucose to glycogen. Glucagon-hormone that changes glycogen to glucose. Glycogen -stored in liver Liver glycogen stored nere Pancreas - makes insulin 8 glucagon. increase Blood Glucose Level. decrease death death Insilin glucose 1. Blood glucose increases glucagen → glycogen glucose blood 2. Pancreas makes insulin →glucogen liver Glucose stored as glycogen in liver Blood glucose level falls Time Blood Glucose Level. Blood glucose decreases Pancreas makes glucagon Glycogen in liver changed to glucose and added to blood. Blood Glucose levels rise VARIATION Variation helps us tell the difference between living things, they're are 2 types of variation: Continuous - varies from smallest to biggest, a minimum and maximum exsit (e.g. height). Discrete - can be put into groups, similar or differente (e.g eye colour, dry or wet). Discrete characteristics are controlled by I gene (single gene inheritance). Continous characteristics are controlled by many genes (poly genic inheritance (most characteristics)). definitions sexual reproduction mixes genes from 2 parents meaning that genetic variation increases. Gene controls characteristics Allele form of gene Phenotype - Physical appearance Dominant - always expressed Recessive-only expessed when z copies Homozygous-alleles are the same Heterozygous-alleles are different P FI payrents 1st generation F2-2nd generation Genotype-generic make up Observed vs expected - We do not always see expected ratio of Offspring because fertilisation is a random Proccess. C C = disease = no disease =CC =CC this would be disease cc genetic modeling 1. Phenotype Alleles Brown eyes-B (dominant) Blue eyes b (recessive) genotypes-BB- P BB Cc x Cc x bb brown blue gametes -Brown Bb. bb-Blue BB is homozygous Bb is heterozygous bb is homozygous BBB F₁ 100% Brown b Bb |Bb eyes b Bb Bb F₂ Bb 751 Brown BBB Bb eyes b Bb bb 25%. Blue eyes REPRODUCTION Sex cells or gametes are haploid (hawe 1 set of chromosomes) Body cells are diplod (have 2 sets of chromosomes). TYPE animal animal Plant Plant Petal- ovary- Flower structure sex cells SPERM CELL nead anther, Pollen tail2 + GAMETES egg Sperm O haploid Pollen Ouvies haploid GAMETES WHERE ARE THEY MADE? ovaries testes anther ovary Ovule nucleus O Diploid ZYGOTE nulcleus membrane fertilisation Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei of the 2 haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote, which divides to form an embryo. embryo cytoplasm cytoplasm EGG CELL STEM CELLS Stem cells in animals are unspecialised cells which can divide in order to self-renew. They have the potential to become different tpes of cell. Stem cells are involved in growth and repair. stem cells are found: In embryos, at an early stage of development = embryonic stem cells. Throughout the body all through life = tissue stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can form any /all human cells. Tissue stem cells can only form some human cells. organisation Cells basic unit of life. Tissues cells of one type (e.g.musde). Organs different tissues (eg. heart). Organ Systems different organs (e.g. digestion). Cells or organs are speciaused to do different functions (jobs). MITOSIS cell number increases (doubles) in mitosis. e.g. 40 mitosis provides new cells for growth, repair of damadged Hissues and replacement of dead or damadged cells. 1. Diploid cell with 4 chromosomes. (0+0) from mum from dad 2. 3. chromosomes replicate. Still 4 Chromosomes, each made of 2 chromatids. •8 chromatids. Chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell and spindle fibres form. Spindle/ fibres north pole 17 south pole equator 4. Spindle fibres pull chromatids apart. S. equator Chromones move to north and O South pole of cell 2 nuclei form. 8 6. Cytoplasm divides forming 2 • daughter cells. Chromosome number same in each new cell. Chromosome number same as Starting cell. PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is the process where green plants use sunlight energy to make their own food. It takes place inside the chloroplasts of plant cells. the process-Green plants take in carbon dioxide and water and produce glucose and oxygen. CO2 WATER SUGAR +Ö• *=+ CARBON DIOXIDE Carbon Dioxide Hydrogen ATP Stage 1-light reactions - light energy is used to limiting factors of photosynthesis - Temputure. Split the water into hydrogen, oxygen, and ATP. light intensity, carbon dioxide au can slow down or imit photosynthesis, Plant growth. light energy absorbed by chloraphy llin in Chlorapa sis 02 released as a by-product by diffution. LIGHT ENERGY Water (H₂O) Chemical energy ATP •H₂ 0₂ OXYGEN stage 2-carbon fixation - a series of enzyme controted reactions use hydrogen and ATP (from stage 1) is combined with Carbon dioxide (from the air) to form glucose, this occurs in the chloropasis. needed for Stage 2. enzyme conHolled energy source for respiration. fates of glucose - what happens to the glucose made. • converted to cellulose the main structural material in cell ways. Glucose (sugar) •plant energy stored as starch.