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29 Dec 2025
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EDUQAS A Level Biology: Cell Structure Core Revision
M
Molly Gowar
@mollygowar
1 / 10
Microscopes and Measurements
You'll need to know two main types of microscopes: light microscopes (which you probably use in class) and electron microscopes (much more powerful). Getting comfortable with units is essential - metres, millimetres, micrometers, and nanometers follow a simple pattern where each step down is 1000 times smaller.
The magnification equation is your best friend: Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size. Remember it as "I AM" - Image, Actual, Magnification. This formula comes up constantly in exam calculations, so practice converting between units until it becomes second nature.
Eukaryotic cells are the complex ones (like yours!) that contain membrane-bound organelles - basically little compartments floating in the cytoplasm. Think of them as rooms in a house, each with a specific job.
Quick tip: Practice unit conversions daily - they're easy marks if you know them, but can cost you points if you don't!
Animal and Plant Cell Structure
Animal cells are packed with organelles, each doing vital jobs. The nucleus (with its nucleolus inside) controls everything, while mitochondria power the cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (covered in ribosomes) makes proteins, and the Golgi body packages them up for delivery.
Plant cells have everything animal cells have, plus some extras that make them special. The cell wall provides structure, chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, and a large vacuole keeps the cell firm and stores materials. The tonoplast is just the membrane around that vacuole.
Learning these diagrams isn't just about memorising - understanding what each part does helps you tackle any question about cell function. Focus on the major players first, then add the smaller organelles like lysosomes and centrioles.
Exam hack: If you're stuck on a labelling question, think about function - what would the cell need in that particular spot?
Prokaryotic Cells and Key Differences
Prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) are much simpler than eukaryotic cells. They've got no nucleus - instead, their genetic material floats freely in the cytoplasm as a nucleoid. They also have circular DNA called plasmids, which is completely different from our linear chromosomes.
The key differences you must know: prokaryotes have no membrane-bound organelles, smaller ribosomes, and often have extra bits like flagella for movement and pili for DNA transfer. Their cell wall is made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose like plants.
Viruses are even simpler - they're not even proper cells! They're just nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein coat. They can't do anything on their own and need to hijack other cells to reproduce.
Memory trick: Pro-karyotic = "Pro-basic" - they came before complex eukaryotic cells in evolution!
Nucleus and Mitochondria Details
The nucleus is your cell's control centre. Its nucleolus makes RNA, while nuclear pores act like security gates, controlling what goes in and out. The chromatin inside is basically your DNA wrapped around proteins - it condenses into chromosomes when cells divide.
Mitochondria are your cellular powerhouses, making ATP through aerobic respiration. Their cristae (folded inner membranes) provide massive surface area for the enzymes that make this happen. The matrix inside contains the enzymes and materials needed for respiration.
What's fascinating is that mitochondria have their own circular DNA and ribosomes - they can actually make some of their own proteins and reproduce independently. This supports the theory that they were once separate bacteria that got absorbed by early cells.
Exam focus: Questions often ask about surface area - cristae in mitochondria and thylakoids in chloroplasts both increase surface area for maximum efficiency!
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Organelle Transport
The rough ER (0.5μm thick) is covered in ribosomes and looks like stacked pancakes with fluid-filled spaces called cisternae. Its job is transporting the proteins that those attached ribosomes make. Think of it as the cell's postal service for proteins.
Smooth ER has no ribosomes and looks more irregular. It focuses on synthesising and transporting lipids - particularly important in cells that make lots of hormones or need to break down toxins.
Lysosomes are like the cell's recycling centres. These small vesicles contain digestive enzymes that break down worn-out organelles and materials brought into the cell. They're formed when bits pinch off from the Golgi body.
Real-world connection: Liver cells have loads of smooth ER because they need to process toxins - that's why your liver can handle moderate amounts of alcohol!
Golgi Body and Cellular Support Structures
The Golgi body is like the cell's post office and factory combined. It processes proteins from the rough ER, makes carbohydrates for cell walls, and packages everything into vesicles for transport. It also produces those important lysosomes we just learned about.
Centrioles (found only in animal cells) are made of microtubules arranged in rings. During cell division, they move to opposite ends of the cell and help form the spindle fibres that pull chromosomes apart. Think of them as the cell's construction crew for division.
These structures work together in a coordinated way - the rough ER makes proteins, the Golgi processes and packages them, and centrioles help organise the cell when it's time to divide. Understanding these connections helps you see the cell as a working system, not just isolated parts.
Visual learner tip: Draw these organelles as a production line - raw materials enter, get processed, packaged, and shipped out!
Plant-Specific Structures
Chloroplasts (about 5μm long) are where photosynthesis happens. They contain thylakoids (flattened sacs) that stack up to form grana. The chlorophyll in these thylakoids captures light energy, while the surrounding stroma contains enzymes that make glucose.
Cell walls are made mainly of cellulose arranged in strong microfibrils. They're fully permeable to water and dissolved substances, unlike cell membranes which are selective. This gives plants their structure and support.
Plasmodesmata are tiny channels through cell walls that allow cytoplasm to connect between plant cells. This means plant cells can share resources and communicate directly - imagine tiny tunnels connecting neighbouring rooms.
Connection point: Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have their own DNA and ribosomes - more evidence for the endosymbiotic theory of evolution!
Vacuoles and Ribosomes
Plant vacuoles are massive storage units bounded by the tonoplast membrane. They store cell sap and create turgor pressure when full of water, which keeps plants upright. When a vacuole is completely full and can't take more water, we call it turgid.
Ribosomes (0.025μm) are the protein-making factories of cells. They're assembled in the nucleus from rRNA and proteins, then either float freely in the cytoplasm or attach to the rough ER. Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ones - this is why some antibiotics can target bacterial ribosomes without harming ours.
Free ribosomes make proteins for use inside the cell, while ER-attached ribosomes make proteins destined for secretion or membrane incorporation. It's all about location and destination.
Antibiotic connection: Many antibiotics work by targeting prokaryotic ribosomes specifically - clever medicine that exploits the size difference!
Cell Type Comparison and Viruses
The organelle comparison table is exam gold - learn which structures appear in animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells. Plants have everything animals do, plus chloroplasts, cell walls, large vacuoles, and plasmodesmata. Prokaryotes are much simpler with no membrane-bound organelles.
Viruses aren't technically alive - they're just nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) in a protein coat. They have no organelles, no metabolism, and can't reproduce alone. They hijack host cells to replicate, which is why they cause diseases like flu, HIV, and COVID-19.
Different viruses target different hosts - human viruses include flu and HIV, plant viruses attack crops like tobacco, and animal viruses cause diseases like swine flu and bird flu. Understanding this helps explain how diseases spread and why some treatments work.
Current events: The COVID-19 pandemic showed how quickly RNA viruses can spread and evolve - biology in action!
Epithelial Tissues
Tissues are groups of similar cells doing the same job - the next level up from individual cells. Epithelial tissue forms continuous layers that line internal and external body surfaces, acting like biological wallpaper.
Cuboidal epithelium has cube-shaped cells in single layers, perfect for the kidney tubules where they regulate what gets filtered. Ciliated epithelium has elongated cells with cilia that sweep materials along, like in your respiratory tract clearing mucus.
Squamous epithelium consists of flattened cells that form thin barriers, ideal for alveoli in lungs where gases need to pass through quickly. Each type's shape perfectly matches its function.
Body connection: Every time you cough up mucus, thank your ciliated epithelium for doing its job and sweeping debris out of your lungs!
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I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
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This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
EDUQAS A Level Biology: Cell Structure Core Revision
M
Molly Gowar
@mollygowar
Understanding cell structure is crucial for your biology GCSE and A-levels - it's the foundation for everything from photosynthesis to genetics. This revision guide breaks down microscopes, cell organelles, and tissue types in a way that'll help you ace those... Show more
Microscopes and Measurements
You'll need to know two main types of microscopes: light microscopes (which you probably use in class) and electron microscopes (much more powerful). Getting comfortable with units is essential - metres, millimetres, micrometers, and nanometers follow a simple pattern where each step down is 1000 times smaller.
The magnification equation is your best friend: Magnification = Image size ÷ Actual size. Remember it as "I AM" - Image, Actual, Magnification. This formula comes up constantly in exam calculations, so practice converting between units until it becomes second nature.
Eukaryotic cells are the complex ones (like yours!) that contain membrane-bound organelles - basically little compartments floating in the cytoplasm. Think of them as rooms in a house, each with a specific job.
Quick tip: Practice unit conversions daily - they're easy marks if you know them, but can cost you points if you don't!
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Animal and Plant Cell Structure
Animal cells are packed with organelles, each doing vital jobs. The nucleus (with its nucleolus inside) controls everything, while mitochondria power the cell. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (covered in ribosomes) makes proteins, and the Golgi body packages them up for delivery.
Plant cells have everything animal cells have, plus some extras that make them special. The cell wall provides structure, chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis, and a large vacuole keeps the cell firm and stores materials. The tonoplast is just the membrane around that vacuole.
Learning these diagrams isn't just about memorising - understanding what each part does helps you tackle any question about cell function. Focus on the major players first, then add the smaller organelles like lysosomes and centrioles.
Exam hack: If you're stuck on a labelling question, think about function - what would the cell need in that particular spot?
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Prokaryotic Cells and Key Differences
Prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) are much simpler than eukaryotic cells. They've got no nucleus - instead, their genetic material floats freely in the cytoplasm as a nucleoid. They also have circular DNA called plasmids, which is completely different from our linear chromosomes.
The key differences you must know: prokaryotes have no membrane-bound organelles, smaller ribosomes, and often have extra bits like flagella for movement and pili for DNA transfer. Their cell wall is made of peptidoglycan, not cellulose like plants.
Viruses are even simpler - they're not even proper cells! They're just nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protein coat. They can't do anything on their own and need to hijack other cells to reproduce.
Memory trick: Pro-karyotic = "Pro-basic" - they came before complex eukaryotic cells in evolution!
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Nucleus and Mitochondria Details
The nucleus is your cell's control centre. Its nucleolus makes RNA, while nuclear pores act like security gates, controlling what goes in and out. The chromatin inside is basically your DNA wrapped around proteins - it condenses into chromosomes when cells divide.
Mitochondria are your cellular powerhouses, making ATP through aerobic respiration. Their cristae (folded inner membranes) provide massive surface area for the enzymes that make this happen. The matrix inside contains the enzymes and materials needed for respiration.
What's fascinating is that mitochondria have their own circular DNA and ribosomes - they can actually make some of their own proteins and reproduce independently. This supports the theory that they were once separate bacteria that got absorbed by early cells.
Exam focus: Questions often ask about surface area - cristae in mitochondria and thylakoids in chloroplasts both increase surface area for maximum efficiency!
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Endoplasmic Reticulum and Organelle Transport
The rough ER (0.5μm thick) is covered in ribosomes and looks like stacked pancakes with fluid-filled spaces called cisternae. Its job is transporting the proteins that those attached ribosomes make. Think of it as the cell's postal service for proteins.
Smooth ER has no ribosomes and looks more irregular. It focuses on synthesising and transporting lipids - particularly important in cells that make lots of hormones or need to break down toxins.
Lysosomes are like the cell's recycling centres. These small vesicles contain digestive enzymes that break down worn-out organelles and materials brought into the cell. They're formed when bits pinch off from the Golgi body.
Real-world connection: Liver cells have loads of smooth ER because they need to process toxins - that's why your liver can handle moderate amounts of alcohol!
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Golgi Body and Cellular Support Structures
The Golgi body is like the cell's post office and factory combined. It processes proteins from the rough ER, makes carbohydrates for cell walls, and packages everything into vesicles for transport. It also produces those important lysosomes we just learned about.
Centrioles (found only in animal cells) are made of microtubules arranged in rings. During cell division, they move to opposite ends of the cell and help form the spindle fibres that pull chromosomes apart. Think of them as the cell's construction crew for division.
These structures work together in a coordinated way - the rough ER makes proteins, the Golgi processes and packages them, and centrioles help organise the cell when it's time to divide. Understanding these connections helps you see the cell as a working system, not just isolated parts.
Visual learner tip: Draw these organelles as a production line - raw materials enter, get processed, packaged, and shipped out!
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Plant-Specific Structures
Chloroplasts (about 5μm long) are where photosynthesis happens. They contain thylakoids (flattened sacs) that stack up to form grana. The chlorophyll in these thylakoids captures light energy, while the surrounding stroma contains enzymes that make glucose.
Cell walls are made mainly of cellulose arranged in strong microfibrils. They're fully permeable to water and dissolved substances, unlike cell membranes which are selective. This gives plants their structure and support.
Plasmodesmata are tiny channels through cell walls that allow cytoplasm to connect between plant cells. This means plant cells can share resources and communicate directly - imagine tiny tunnels connecting neighbouring rooms.
Connection point: Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have their own DNA and ribosomes - more evidence for the endosymbiotic theory of evolution!
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Vacuoles and Ribosomes
Plant vacuoles are massive storage units bounded by the tonoplast membrane. They store cell sap and create turgor pressure when full of water, which keeps plants upright. When a vacuole is completely full and can't take more water, we call it turgid.
Ribosomes (0.025μm) are the protein-making factories of cells. They're assembled in the nucleus from rRNA and proteins, then either float freely in the cytoplasm or attach to the rough ER. Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ones - this is why some antibiotics can target bacterial ribosomes without harming ours.
Free ribosomes make proteins for use inside the cell, while ER-attached ribosomes make proteins destined for secretion or membrane incorporation. It's all about location and destination.
Antibiotic connection: Many antibiotics work by targeting prokaryotic ribosomes specifically - clever medicine that exploits the size difference!
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Cell Type Comparison and Viruses
The organelle comparison table is exam gold - learn which structures appear in animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells. Plants have everything animals do, plus chloroplasts, cell walls, large vacuoles, and plasmodesmata. Prokaryotes are much simpler with no membrane-bound organelles.
Viruses aren't technically alive - they're just nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) in a protein coat. They have no organelles, no metabolism, and can't reproduce alone. They hijack host cells to replicate, which is why they cause diseases like flu, HIV, and COVID-19.
Different viruses target different hosts - human viruses include flu and HIV, plant viruses attack crops like tobacco, and animal viruses cause diseases like swine flu and bird flu. Understanding this helps explain how diseases spread and why some treatments work.
Current events: The COVID-19 pandemic showed how quickly RNA viruses can spread and evolve - biology in action!
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Epithelial Tissues
Tissues are groups of similar cells doing the same job - the next level up from individual cells. Epithelial tissue forms continuous layers that line internal and external body surfaces, acting like biological wallpaper.
Cuboidal epithelium has cube-shaped cells in single layers, perfect for the kidney tubules where they regulate what gets filtered. Ciliated epithelium has elongated cells with cilia that sweep materials along, like in your respiratory tract clearing mucus.
Squamous epithelium consists of flattened cells that form thin barriers, ideal for alveoli in lungs where gases need to pass through quickly. Each type's shape perfectly matches its function.
Body connection: Every time you cough up mucus, thank your ciliated epithelium for doing its job and sweeping debris out of your lungs!
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user