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Olive Stevens
04/10/2025
Biology
Biology paper 2 aqa
4,941
•
4 Oct 2025
•
AQA Biology Paper 2: Genetic Engineering & Hormonal Coordination for GCSE
Olive Stevens
@olivestevens_ssuw
1 / 10
Metabolism and Variation
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within living organisms. It includes both anabolic (building up) and catabolic (breaking down) processes.
Key metabolic processes:
- Carbohydrate synthesis and breakdown
- Protein synthesis and amino acid production
- Lipid synthesis
Definition: Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions in an organism.
Variation describes differences in characteristics between individuals in a population. Sources of variation include:
- Genetic differences (inherited traits)
- Environmental factors
- Combinations of genes and environment
Highlight: Mutations are changes in DNA sequences that can lead to new traits, driving evolution when beneficial.
Genetic Inheritance and DNA
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes (sex cells) with half the normal number of chromosomes. Key points:
- DNA replicates before cell division
- Results in four genetically different daughter cells
- Restores full chromosome number during fertilization
Vocabulary:
- Gamete: Specialized sex cell formed by meiosis
- Chromosome: Structure made of DNA found in cell nuclei
- Allele: Different form of the same gene
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in cell nuclei. It has a double helix structure composed of two strands.
Key genetic concepts:
- Genes are sections of DNA coding for specific proteins
- The genome is an organism's complete set of genetic material
- Genotype is the genetic makeup, while phenotype is the observable traits
Definition: A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
Sexual Reproduction and Selective Breeding
Sexual reproduction involves:
- Two parents contributing genetic material
- Production of gametes through meiosis
- Fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization)
In animals, sperm fertilizes an egg. In plants, pollen fertilizes an ovule.
Selective breeding is the process of choosing organisms with desired traits to produce offspring.
Benefits:
- Disease-resistant crops
- Increased meat/milk production in livestock
- Desired traits in domesticated animals
Example: Dogs have been selectively bred for traits like gentleness and specific physical characteristics.
Risks:
- Reduced genetic diversity
- Increased susceptibility to diseases
- Inherited defects due to inbreeding
Highlight: While selective breeding can produce desired traits, it can also lead to health issues in some breeds due to limited genetic diversity.
Genetic Engineering and Cloning
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism's genome by inserting genes from another organism. This allows the creation of organisms with desired traits.
Key steps in genetic engineering:
- Isolate desired gene
- Insert gene into a vector
- Transfer vector into target cell
- Allow modified organism to develop
Highlight: Genetic engineering has potential benefits like curing inherited diseases and improving crop yields, but also carries risks like gene transfer to wild species.
Cloning produces genetically identical organisms through asexual reproduction methods. Common cloning techniques include:
- Tissue culture for plants
- Embryo transplants for animals
- Adult cell nuclear transfer (e.g. Dolly the sheep)
Example: Tissue culture involves growing new plants from small groups of plant cells, which is useful for preserving rare species.
Vocabulary: A clone is an organism that is genetically identical to its parent.
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AQA Biology Paper 2: Genetic Engineering & Hormonal Coordination for GCSE
Olive Stevens
@olivestevens_ssuw
Genetic Engineering and Metabolism in Biology: Key Concepts for GCSE
This document covers essential topics in genetic engineering GCSE Biology and metabolism, including:
- Genetic engineering techniques and applications
- Cloning methods and their implications
- Metabolism and key metabolic processes
- Variation in... Show more
Metabolism and Variation
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within living organisms. It includes both anabolic (building up) and catabolic (breaking down) processes.
Key metabolic processes:
- Carbohydrate synthesis and breakdown
- Protein synthesis and amino acid production
- Lipid synthesis
Definition: Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions in an organism.
Variation describes differences in characteristics between individuals in a population. Sources of variation include:
- Genetic differences (inherited traits)
- Environmental factors
- Combinations of genes and environment
Highlight: Mutations are changes in DNA sequences that can lead to new traits, driving evolution when beneficial.
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Genetic Inheritance and DNA
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes (sex cells) with half the normal number of chromosomes. Key points:
- DNA replicates before cell division
- Results in four genetically different daughter cells
- Restores full chromosome number during fertilization
Vocabulary:
- Gamete: Specialized sex cell formed by meiosis
- Chromosome: Structure made of DNA found in cell nuclei
- Allele: Different form of the same gene
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in cell nuclei. It has a double helix structure composed of two strands.
Key genetic concepts:
- Genes are sections of DNA coding for specific proteins
- The genome is an organism's complete set of genetic material
- Genotype is the genetic makeup, while phenotype is the observable traits
Definition: A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
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Sexual Reproduction and Selective Breeding
Sexual reproduction involves:
- Two parents contributing genetic material
- Production of gametes through meiosis
- Fusion of male and female gametes (fertilization)
In animals, sperm fertilizes an egg. In plants, pollen fertilizes an ovule.
Selective breeding is the process of choosing organisms with desired traits to produce offspring.
Benefits:
- Disease-resistant crops
- Increased meat/milk production in livestock
- Desired traits in domesticated animals
Example: Dogs have been selectively bred for traits like gentleness and specific physical characteristics.
Risks:
- Reduced genetic diversity
- Increased susceptibility to diseases
- Inherited defects due to inbreeding
Highlight: While selective breeding can produce desired traits, it can also lead to health issues in some breeds due to limited genetic diversity.
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Genetic Engineering and Cloning
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism's genome by inserting genes from another organism. This allows the creation of organisms with desired traits.
Key steps in genetic engineering:
- Isolate desired gene
- Insert gene into a vector
- Transfer vector into target cell
- Allow modified organism to develop
Highlight: Genetic engineering has potential benefits like curing inherited diseases and improving crop yields, but also carries risks like gene transfer to wild species.
Cloning produces genetically identical organisms through asexual reproduction methods. Common cloning techniques include:
- Tissue culture for plants
- Embryo transplants for animals
- Adult cell nuclear transfer (e.g. Dolly the sheep)
Example: Tissue culture involves growing new plants from small groups of plant cells, which is useful for preserving rare species.
Vocabulary: A clone is an organism that is genetically identical to its parent.
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Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user