Plots and Rebellions Against Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I's reign was marked by several plots and rebellions, primarily driven by religious and political tensions:

1. Ridolfi Plot $1571$: King Philip II of Spain promised to send 10,000 troops, but they never materialized. This plot led to the passage of two new laws in 1581 to strengthen national security.
2. Throckmorton Plot $1583$: After this plot was uncovered, many important Catholics fled England. Approximately 11,000 people were imprisoned or kept under surveillance.
3. Northern Earls' Rebellion $1569$: To send a strong message, Elizabeth executed 700 of the rebels.

These events highlight the ongoing threats to Elizabeth's rule and her decisive responses to maintain power and stability.

Highlight: Elizabeth I's handling of plots and rebellions demonstrated her political acumen and determination to secure her throne.

Treaty of Nonsuch (1585)

The Treaty of Nonsuch was a significant diplomatic agreement between England and the Dutch rebels fighting against Spanish rule:

• Elizabeth promised to send an army of 7,000 to help the Netherlands.
• This treaty marked England's entry into the Eighty Years' War on the Dutch side.
• It was a clear sign of Elizabeth's commitment to opposing Spanish dominance in Europe.

Vocabulary: Eighty Years' War - Also known as the Dutch War of Independence, it was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands against the Spanish Empire.

Elizabeth's Early Reign Challenges

When Elizabeth ascended to the throne in 1558, she faced several significant challenges:

1. Financial Issues: The crown was in debt by £300,000 with a 14% interest rate. By 1585, Elizabeth had not only paid off the debt but had built up a reserve of £300,000.
2. Government Structure: Elizabeth aimed to reduce the Privy Council from 50 to 20 members. The Privy Council met three times a week. By 1600, the Privy Council had been streamlined to 11 people.

Definition: Privy Council - A formal body of advisors to the sovereign of the United Kingdom.

Religious Settlement and Controversies

Elizabeth's religious settlement aimed to find a middle ground between Protestantism and Catholicism:

1. Vestment Controversy $1566$: A special exhibition was held to instruct priests on wearing vestments. Out of 110 invited priests, 37 refused and lost their positions.
2. Oath of Loyalty $1559$: Only 250 out of 9,000 priests refused to take the oath of loyalty and lost their jobs. People were fined 1 shilling for not attending church under the religious settlement.

Example: The relatively low number of priests who refused the Oath of Loyalty suggests that Elizabeth's religious compromise was largely successful in maintaining stability.

Social Hierarchy in Elizabethan England

The Elizabethan era maintained a strict social hierarchy:

• Nobles and Landlords: Approximately 50 families at the top of society.
• Craftspeople, Laborers, Servants, and the Poor: About 500,000 people at the lower levels of society.

This social structure influenced every aspect of Elizabethan life, from economic opportunities to social interactions and legal rights.

Highlight: The vast disparity between the number of noble families and the general population underscores the significant social inequality of the Elizabethan era.

The American West: Expansion and Conflict

The American West in the 19th century was a period of rapid expansion, conflict, and transformation. Key events and policies shaped this era:

Homestead Act (1862)

The Homestead Act was a significant piece of legislation that encouraged westward expansion:

• Anyone over 21 could file a claim for 160 acres of land.
• After 5 years, they had to buy the land for $30.
• It only cost $10 to register a claim.
• 1.6 million people settled on Federal lands due to this act.
• However, 60% of homestead claims were never "proved up" because farms struggled or failed.

Definition: "Proved up" - Fulfilling all the requirements of the Homestead Act to gain full ownership of the land.

Civil War (1861-65)

The American Civil War had a profound impact on westward expansion:

• 200,000 people were killed in battle.
• An additional 416,000 died from disease.

The war's aftermath influenced migration patterns and economic development in the West.

Transcontinental Railroad

The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 led to the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad:

• Workers were promised $1,400-$48,000 per mile.
• It started from Omaha to Sacramento.
• Completed in 1869, it reduced travel time from 6 months to 7 days.
• Over 1 million people traveled on the railroads each day.

Highlight: The Transcontinental Railroad dramatically reduced travel time across America, facilitating rapid westward expansion and economic growth.

Native American Policies

Several acts and treaties significantly impacted Native American communities:

1. Indian Removal Act $1830$: Forced Indians to move west of the Mississippi. Approximately 50,000 Plains Indians were relocated. The infamous "Trail of Tears" resulted in the death of 13% of the Cherokee people.
2. Fort Laramie Treaty $1851$: Provided an annuity of $50,000 to Native American tribes.
3. Dawes Act $1887$: Reduced Native American land holdings from 150 million acres to just 1/3 of that. Single Plains Indians received 80 acres, while orphans under 18 got 40 acres.

Example: The "Trail of Tears" is a stark example of the human cost of the Indian Removal Act, with thousands of Native Americans dying during forced relocation.

The Donner Party (1846-47)

The Donner Party's tragic journey illustrates the dangers of westward migration:

• 300 migrants with 60 wagons began the journey.
• 87 people attempted a shortcut, but only 7 made it to California.

This event highlighted the perils faced by pioneers and the need for better-planned routes and support systems.

Mormon Migration

The Mormon migration to Utah was a significant event in western expansion:

• In 1855, 4,225 Mormon converts arrived in Utah from Europe.
• Brigham Young led an advance party of 150 Mormons.
• Between 1847 and 1869, 70,000 Mormons used the Mormon Trail.
• The Mormon community grew from 1,000 members in Kirtland to 35,000 in Nauvoo.

Vocabulary: Mormon Trail - The 1,300-mile route from Nauvoo, Illinois, to Salt Lake City, Utah, used by Mormon pioneers.

Economic and Technological Developments in the American West

The American West experienced significant economic and technological changes in the 19th century:

Mining Towns

Mining towns played a crucial role in the economic development of the West. They often sprang up quickly following mineral discoveries and could be just as quickly abandoned when the resources were depleted.

Economic Depression (1837)

The Panic of 1837 led to a severe economic depression that affected the entire United States, including the western territories. This economic downturn influenced migration patterns and settlement in the West.

The Oregon Trail (1840s)

The Oregon Trail was a major route for westward migration:

• It stretched about 2,000 miles from Independence, Missouri, to Oregon City, Oregon.
• Hundreds of thousands of settlers used this trail to reach the Pacific Northwest.

Example: The Oregon Trail was marked by numerous hardships, including disease, accidents, and conflicts with Native Americans.

California Gold Rush (1849)

The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in 1848 sparked a massive migration to California:

• Approximately 300,000 people came to California between 1849 and 1855.
• The population of San Francisco grew from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by 1850.
• This event significantly accelerated the settlement of the American West.

Technological Innovations

Several technological innovations transformed agriculture and ranching in the West:

1. Self-governing Wind Pump $1854$: This invention allowed for easier access to water in arid regions, making previously uninhabitable areas suitable for settlement and agriculture.
2. Sulky Plough: This improved plow design made it easier to break up the tough prairie sod, facilitating large-scale farming in the Great Plains.

Cattle Industry Developments

The cattle industry played a significant role in the economic development of the West:

1. Joseph McCoy: McCoy established Abilene, Kansas, as a major cattle shipping point in 1867. This development connected Texas cattle ranchers with eastern markets via the railroad.
2. Goodnight-Loving Trail: Established by Charles Goodnight and Oliver Loving in 1866. This cattle trail ran from Texas to Wyoming, facilitating the movement of cattle to northern markets.
3. John Iliff: Known as the "Cattle King of the Plains," Iliff was a pioneer in the use of open range grazing in Colorado and Wyoming.

The Big Die-Up

The winter of 1886-1887, known as the "Big Die-Up" or "Great Die-Up," was a catastrophic event for the cattle industry:

• Extremely harsh weather conditions led to the death of thousands of cattle across the Plains.
• This event marked the end of the open range era and led to significant changes in ranching practices.

Highlight: The "Big Die-Up" demonstrated the vulnerabilities of the open range system and led to the adoption of more sustainable ranching methods, including the use of fenced pastures and winter feeding.

These economic and technological developments shaped the American West, transforming it from a frontier region to an integral part of the United States economy. The period was marked by rapid change, innovation, and the overcoming of significant challenges posed by the harsh western environment.

Education and Literacy in Elizabethan England

The Elizabethan era saw significant improvements in education and literacy rates. At the beginning of Elizabeth I's reign, only 15% of the population could read and write. However, by the end of her reign, literacy rates had increased to 30% for men and 10% for women. This improvement was partly due to the establishment of new educational institutions, with 42 grammar schools founded in the 1560s alone.

Highlight: The literacy rate in Elizabethan England doubled during Elizabeth I's reign, demonstrating the era's focus on education.

The emphasis on education during this period laid the foundation for future advancements in English society and culture. It also contributed to the flourishing of literature and the arts, which are hallmarks of the Elizabethan age.

Example: The increase in literacy rates and the establishment of new schools likely contributed to the emergence of great writers like William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe.

Poverty and Social Welfare

Elizabeth I's government implemented several measures to address poverty and social welfare issues:

1. 1558: Introduction of the Poor Rate
2. 1563: Statute of Artificers
3. 1572: Vagabonds Act
4. 1576: Poor Relief Act

These acts aimed to provide support for the poor while also regulating employment and apprenticeships. For instance, the Statute of Artificers required boys to serve a 7-year apprenticeship and imposed fines on towns that failed to collect poor relief funds effectively.

Vocabulary: Poor Rate - A tax levied on property owners to fund relief for the poor in their parish.

Population Growth and Challenges

During Elizabeth I's reign, England experienced significant population growth. The population increased from around 2.5 million at the start of her reign to approximately 4 million by its end. This rapid growth presented challenges, particularly in terms of food supply and employment.

Highlight: The population of England grew by about 60% during Elizabeth I's reign, creating both opportunities and challenges for the nation.

The Spanish Armada

One of the most famous events of Elizabeth I's reign was the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. This naval battle was a turning point in English history and established England as a major naval power.

Key facts about the Spanish Armada:

• The Spanish fleet was more than twice the size of the English fleet.
• On the first day of battle, the English fired 2,000 cannonballs but didn't sink any Spanish ships.
• The English used 8 fireships to break up the Spanish formation.
• Over 600 Spanish sailors died, and many hundreds more were severely wounded.
• Only one-third of the Spanish men returned home alive.
• The English suffered fewer than 100 deaths from Spanish action.

Quote: "I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too." - Queen Elizabeth I, in her speech to the troops at Tilbury

Sir Francis Drake

Sir Francis Drake was a key figure in Elizabethan naval history and exploration:

• He was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe in a single expedition.
• Drake was knighted in 1581 for his services to the crown.
• King Philip II of Spain allegedly offered a reward of around £6 million for Drake's capture or death.
• During his voyages, Drake captured significant amounts of Spanish treasure, including 36 kilos of gold and 26 tonnes of silver from the Spanish Golden Hind.
• His voyage resulted in a 4,600% profit.

Example: Drake's raid on Cadiz in 1587 delayed the Spanish Armada by a year and resulted in the destruction of 25-35 Spanish ships.