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1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
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10
0
Rosie
08/09/2025
Chemistry
hybridisation
103
•
8 Sept 2025
•
Rosie
@rosie_321
Carbon hybridization and bonding in organic compounds
Carbon's unique ability... Show more
Hybridisation in Organic Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications
This page provides a comprehensive overview of hybridisation in organic chemistry, focusing on carbon's unique bonding capabilities and its various hybridization states in different organic compounds.
The concept of hybridisation is introduced as the process of mixing atomic orbitals within an atom. For carbon, this is particularly important due to its electron configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p². The guide explains how carbon can promote one of its 2s electrons to an empty 2p orbital, allowing for different hybridization states.
Alkanes and sp³ Hybridization
In alkanes, carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization. This process is described in detail:
Definition: sp³ hybridization occurs when one s orbital and three p orbitals combine to form four equivalent hybrid orbitals.
The resulting four sp³ hybrid orbitals are degenerate and form a tetrahedral shape around the carbon atom. These orbitals overlap end-on with other atoms to form sigma (σ) bonds.
Example: In methane (CH₄), the carbon atom forms four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals that bond with four hydrogen atoms, creating a tetrahedral structure.
Alkenes and sp² Hybridization
For alkenes, the guide explains sp2 hybridization:
Definition: sp² hybridization involves the mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to create three equivalent hybrid orbitals.
The three sp² hybrid orbitals lie in a trigonal planar arrangement, forming sigma bonds by overlapping end-on. The remaining unhybridized p orbital is perpendicular to this plane and can overlap side-on with another p orbital to form a pi (π) bond.
Example: In ethene (C₂H₄), each carbon atom has three sp² hybrid orbitals (two bonding with hydrogen, one with the other carbon) and one unhybridized p orbital that forms the π bond between the carbons.
Alkynes and sp Hybridization
The guide then covers sp hybridization in alkynes:
Definition: sp hybridization occurs when one s orbital and one p orbital combine to form two equivalent hybrid orbitals.
In alkynes, two sp hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds by end-on overlap, while the two remaining unhybridized p orbitals overlap side-on to form two π bonds.
Example: In ethyne (C₂H₂), each carbon has two sp hybrid orbitals (one bonding with hydrogen, one with the other carbon) and two unhybridized p orbitals that form the triple bond.
Bonding in Benzene
The page concludes with an explanation of the unique bonding in benzene:
Highlight: Benzene exhibits sp² hybridization on each carbon atom, with a delocalized π electron cloud above and below the ring.
Each carbon in benzene has three sp² hybrid orbitals forming sigma bonds, and one unhybridized p orbital. The six p orbitals overlap side-on, creating a delocalized π electron cloud with six electrons.
Vocabulary: Delocalization refers to the distribution of electrons over multiple atoms in a molecule, rather than being confined to a single bond.
This comprehensive overview provides students with a solid foundation in hybridisation in organic chemistry, covering key concepts from basic alkanes to the more complex bonding in benzene.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Rosie
@rosie_321
Carbon hybridization and bonding in organic compounds
Carbon's unique ability to form different types of bonds through hybridization enables the vast diversity of organic molecules. This summary explores the hybridization process in carbon compounds, focusing on alkanes, alkenes... Show more
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Hybridisation in Organic Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications
This page provides a comprehensive overview of hybridisation in organic chemistry, focusing on carbon's unique bonding capabilities and its various hybridization states in different organic compounds.
The concept of hybridisation is introduced as the process of mixing atomic orbitals within an atom. For carbon, this is particularly important due to its electron configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p². The guide explains how carbon can promote one of its 2s electrons to an empty 2p orbital, allowing for different hybridization states.
Alkanes and sp³ Hybridization
In alkanes, carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization. This process is described in detail:
Definition: sp³ hybridization occurs when one s orbital and three p orbitals combine to form four equivalent hybrid orbitals.
The resulting four sp³ hybrid orbitals are degenerate and form a tetrahedral shape around the carbon atom. These orbitals overlap end-on with other atoms to form sigma (σ) bonds.
Example: In methane (CH₄), the carbon atom forms four equivalent sp³ hybrid orbitals that bond with four hydrogen atoms, creating a tetrahedral structure.
Alkenes and sp² Hybridization
For alkenes, the guide explains sp2 hybridization:
Definition: sp² hybridization involves the mixing of one s orbital and two p orbitals to create three equivalent hybrid orbitals.
The three sp² hybrid orbitals lie in a trigonal planar arrangement, forming sigma bonds by overlapping end-on. The remaining unhybridized p orbital is perpendicular to this plane and can overlap side-on with another p orbital to form a pi (π) bond.
Example: In ethene (C₂H₄), each carbon atom has three sp² hybrid orbitals (two bonding with hydrogen, one with the other carbon) and one unhybridized p orbital that forms the π bond between the carbons.
Alkynes and sp Hybridization
The guide then covers sp hybridization in alkynes:
Definition: sp hybridization occurs when one s orbital and one p orbital combine to form two equivalent hybrid orbitals.
In alkynes, two sp hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds by end-on overlap, while the two remaining unhybridized p orbitals overlap side-on to form two π bonds.
Example: In ethyne (C₂H₂), each carbon has two sp hybrid orbitals (one bonding with hydrogen, one with the other carbon) and two unhybridized p orbitals that form the triple bond.
Bonding in Benzene
The page concludes with an explanation of the unique bonding in benzene:
Highlight: Benzene exhibits sp² hybridization on each carbon atom, with a delocalized π electron cloud above and below the ring.
Each carbon in benzene has three sp² hybrid orbitals forming sigma bonds, and one unhybridized p orbital. The six p orbitals overlap side-on, creating a delocalized π electron cloud with six electrons.
Vocabulary: Delocalization refers to the distribution of electrons over multiple atoms in a molecule, rather than being confined to a single bond.
This comprehensive overview provides students with a solid foundation in hybridisation in organic chemistry, covering key concepts from basic alkanes to the more complex bonding in benzene.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
