Families and Households - The Big Names

Functionalist thinkers like Talcott Parsons reckon the nuclear family is absolutely brilliant - men go out to work whilst women stay home being nurturing and emotional. George Murdock identified four key jobs families do: keeping everyone's sex drive stable, having babies, teaching kids how to behave, and meeting everyone's basic needs.

Marxist scholars see families very differently. Karl Marx believed families didn't exist in early human societies, whilst Friedrich Engels thought we originally lived in "promiscuous hordes" until capitalism created families to pass down wealth. Zaretsky argues families basically brainwash working-class kids into accepting that class differences are normal.

Feminist perspectives are pretty critical too. Fran Ansley famously called women "takers of shit" who absorb all the anger men bring home from work. Germaine Greer goes further, arguing that family life disadvantages women completely - wives must support everything their husbands do, mothers must care for kids whilst working, and daughters often face sexual abuse.

Key Point: Each perspective sees families completely differently - functionalists love them, Marxists think they serve capitalism, and feminists spot loads of inequality.

Couples and Power Dynamics

Conjugal roles (basically who does what in relationships) have supposedly become more equal over time. Willmott & Young's research on symmetrical families suggests men now do more childcare and housework whilst women earn wages too. Elizabeth Bott distinguished between segregated roles (traditional breadwinner/homemaker split) and joint roles (sharing everything).

However, feminist research paints a different picture. Duncombe and Marsden discovered women actually do a triple shift - paid work, domestic work, and emotional labour (basically managing everyone's feelings). When it comes to money, Pahl & Vogler found that even when couples "pool" their income, men often control the important financial decisions.

Domestic violence remains a serious issue that feminists highlight. Dobash and Dobash argue that marriage actually legitimises violence against women by giving husbands power and authority. Meanwhile, research on same-sex couples shows they often have more genuinely equal relationships without these traditional power imbalances.

Reality Check: Despite claims about modern equality, research consistently shows women still do more unpaid work and have less financial power in most heterosexual relationships.

Childhood Across Cultures and Time

Cross-cultural research shows that childhood looks completely different around the world. In Tikopia, adults must earn children's respect rather than demanding it automatically. Trobriand Islanders find children's sexual behaviour amusing rather than shocking. Samoan children take on serious responsibilities early, with "too young" never being used as an excuse.

Historical perspectives reveal childhood as we know it is pretty recent. Aries found that medieval children were treated as "mini adults" - wearing the same clothes and doing the same work as grown-ups. Wagg argues childhood is completely socially constructed, meaning different societies create different ideas about what childhood should be.

Modern concerns about childhood are growing. Postman believes childhood is disappearing due to mass media exposing kids to adult content too early. Palmer warns about "toxic childhood" caused by junk food, computer games, excessive testing, and parents working long hours. These pressures contribute to rising self-harm, substance abuse, and underage pregnancy.

Think About It: If childhood varies so much between cultures and time periods, what does this tell us about our own assumptions about how children should be treated?

Changing Family Patterns

Marriage and divorce patterns have transformed dramatically. Anthony Giddens describes modern relationships as "pure relationships" - people stay together only as long as both partners benefit. This explains rising divorce rates, as Jessie Barnard found women increasingly reject patriarchal marriages and feel confident enough to leave unsatisfying relationships.

Cohabitation (living together without marriage) is becoming the norm rather than the exception. Some sociologists like Bejin see it as an attempt to create more equal relationships, whilst Robert Chester views it simply as a step before marriage. The reduced stigma around divorce since the 1960s makes it easier for couples to separate when relationships aren't working.

New household types are emerging rapidly. Klinenberg links the rise in single-person households to better communication technology - the internet helps people feel connected even when living alone. "Living-Apart Together" (LAT) relationships allow couples to maintain separate homes whilst staying committed, often due to children from previous relationships or practical considerations.

Trend Alert: The idea that everyone should marry young and stay together forever is rapidly becoming outdated - modern relationships are much more flexible and diverse.

Education - Functionalist Views

Durkheim believed education creates social solidarity by welding individuals into a united community. He saw schools as crucial for teaching people to work together and accept their role in society's division of labour. However, Marxists argue he ignores whose interests this "consensus" actually serves.

Parsons championed the idea that education is truly meritocratic - meaning anyone who works hard can succeed regardless of background. Schools prepare students for adult life through universal rules, exams, and competition. He believed this creates essential achievement values for a motivated workforce and helps select the most talented people for important roles.

Davis and Moore linked education directly to social stratification, arguing schools sort students by talent and ability for different careers. They used the analogy of needing both cleaners and brain surgeons - education supposedly identifies who's suited for what. This strongly reinforces meritocratic beliefs that low-paid jobs result from lack of effort rather than structural inequality.

Critical Question: If education really is meritocratic, why do middle-class students consistently outperform working-class students regardless of individual talent?

Education - Marxist and Critical Perspectives

Althusser argued education exists purely to produce obedient workers for capitalism. Schools appear fair whilst actually ensuring working-class students never gain real power or wealth. "Free" subjects like music and art create an illusion of choice whilst core subjects like maths are prioritised to serve economic needs.

Willis studied working-class boys who adopted anti-school attitudes, believing education was worthless for people "destined" for manual jobs. His famous study "Learning to Labour" showed how primary socialisation played a bigger role than schools in shaping academic aspirations - essentially, kids learned their "place" at home.

Bowles and Gintis identified the correspondence principle - schools mirror workplace hierarchies through uniforms, attendance requirements, punctuality demands, and reward systems. Students learn obedience by being punished for lateness and rewarded for compliance, perfectly preparing them to accept capitalist employment without question.

Bourdieu highlighted how schools favour middle-class cultural capital. Working-class traits like accents, clothing, and attitudes face discrimination, whilst middle-class norms are treated as naturally superior. This symbolic violence reinforces class divisions and makes working-class students feel their culture is worthless.

Eye-Opener: Marxists argue schools don't create equality - they're designed to convince working-class kids that their disadvantage is their own fault.

Class and Educational Achievement

External factors (home influences) significantly impact educational success. J.W.B Douglas studied over 5,000 children and found working-class parents often place less value on education, affecting their children's motivation. However, this might reflect practical constraints rather than different values.

Bernstein identified different speech codes - elaborated code (formal, detailed) used by middle-class families versus restricted code (informal, context-dependent) common in working-class families. Since schools favour elaborated code, middle-class students have automatic advantages in academic communication.

Sugarman proposed four working-class cultural barriers: fatalism (accepting your fate), collectivism (group loyalty over individual success), immediate gratification (wanting rewards now), and present-time orientation (not planning ahead). He linked these to job types - working-class careers often peak quickly with limited promotion opportunities.

Internal school factors also matter hugely. Becker found teachers have an "ideal pupil" image - typically middle-class, well-behaved, and conforming. Students live up to these labels, with positively labelled pupils working harder regardless of actual ability, whilst negatively labelled students decline academically.

Reality Check: Educational "failure" often reflects class-based cultural mismatches rather than individual inadequacy or lack of effort.

Gender and Educational Achievement

Girls' educational transformation has been remarkable since the 1970s. Sue Sharpe's research comparing 1976 and 1994 found girls' priorities completely shifted from marriage and family to careers and financial independence. Education became their main route to security and success.

However, gender stereotypes persist in subject choices and teaching approaches. Mitsos and Brown highlighted how feminised teaching (more female teachers) provides positive role models for girls, who also excel at coursework through better organisation and meeting deadlines consistently.

Confidence gaps remain significant despite girls' academic success. Licht and Dweck found girls systematically underestimate their abilities whilst boys overestimate theirs. Girls blame failure on personal inadequacy, whilst boys blame unfair assessment or insufficient teacher effort - these patterns affect long-term achievement.

Male subcultures also influence achievement. Mac an Ghail identified three working-class male groups: academic achievers and new enterprisers (both pro-school) versus "macho lads" who formed anti-school subcultures. McRobbie's "bedroom culture" theory suggests girls engage more with educational activities from childhood, developing academically inclined minds earlier.

Interesting Shift: Girls now outperform boys academically, but confidence and subject stereotypes still create different educational experiences.

Ethnicity and Educational Achievement

Tony Sewell controversially attributed Black boys' underachievement to "ghetto culture" and absent fathers in lone-mother households. He argued that hyper-masculine attitudes and lack of male role models led boys toward aggressive, anti-educational subcultures that emphasised violence over academic success.

Teacher racism and labelling significantly impact ethnic minority students' experiences. Gillborn and Youdell found teachers quickly discipline Black pupils for behaviour that's tolerated in other students, creating "racialised expectations" that see Black students as naturally anti-authority. This creates conflict cycles that reinforce negative stereotypes.

Heidi Mirza identified three types of racist teachers: colour-blind (claim equality whilst allowing discrimination), liberal chauvinists (see Black pupils as culturally deprived), and overt racists (openly discriminate). She found some Black girls developed poor coping strategies, becoming selective about teacher interactions and limiting their educational opportunities.

Fuller's research on Black girls showed self-denying prophecy - students who rejected negative labels and channelled anger into educational success. Despite being placed in low streams, these girls became high achievers by refusing to seek approval from teachers they regarded as racist.

Complex Reality: Ethnic minority students face multiple forms of discrimination, but many develop resilience strategies that help them succeed despite systemic barriers.