Ever wondered why your background seems to affect how teachers... Show more
Sociology642 views·Updated May 18, 2026·9 pagesInternal School Factors Influencing Class Achievement
S
simranjeey@simranjeey_djsyzjrig
1 / 9
1
of 9
Class and Achievement: Internal Factors
Labelling is basically when teachers stick mental tags on students - calling them 'bright', 'troublemaker', 'hardworking' or 'thick'. Here's the problem: research shows teachers often make these judgements based on stereotypes about your family background rather than your actual ability.
Becker's study found that teachers had a mental image of the 'ideal pupil' in their heads. Middle-class students fitted this image perfectly, whilst working-class students were seen as furthest from it - often just because teachers thought they'd misbehave.
Jorgensen discovered something interesting when comparing two primary schools. In the working-class school, teachers valued quiet, obedient behaviour above everything else because they saw discipline as their biggest challenge. In the middle-class school, teachers focused on personality and academic ability instead.
Key Point: Teachers' expectations aren't just about your work - they're shaped by assumptions about your background that you can't control.
Dunne and Gazeley found that teachers made different assumptions about parents too. They labelled working-class parents as uninterested, but middle-class parents as supportive. This led to totally different treatment - middle-class underachievers got extension work, whilst working-class students got entered for easier exams.
2
of 9
Early Labelling and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Rist's research shows labelling starts incredibly early. A teacher divided her class into three groups based on home background and appearance - the 'tigers' sat closest to her and got the most encouragement, whilst the 'cardinals' and 'clowns' sat further away with lower-level books.
The self-fulfilling prophecy is when a prediction comes true simply because someone believes it will happen. It works in three steps: teachers label you, treat you according to that label, then you start believing it yourself and actually become what they expected.
Rosenthal and Jacobson's famous study proved this works. They randomly picked 20% of students and told teachers these pupils would 'spurt ahead' academically. By the end of the year, those randomly selected students had actually improved more than the others.
Reality Check: The students were chosen completely at random - it was purely the teachers' changed expectations and behaviour that made the difference.
This shows how powerful teacher beliefs can be. When teachers expect more from you, they give you more attention, encouragement and higher-standard work. You pick up on this positive energy, try harder, and actually do better.
3
of 9
Streaming and the A-to-C Economy
Streaming means dividing students into different ability groups for all subjects. Once you're in a lower stream, it's incredibly difficult to move up - you're basically stuck with your teachers' low expectations of you.
Douglas found that children placed in higher streams at age 8 had actually improved their IQ scores by age 11. This suggests streaming doesn't just reflect ability - it actually creates it.
Gillborn and Youdell studied how schools focus on league table positions (rankings based on exam results). They called this the 'A-to-C Economy' - where schools put most effort into students they think can get five good GCSEs to boost their ranking.
Think About It: Schools are basically businesses competing for students and funding - your education gets shaped by this competition.
This creates 'educational triage' - like medical staff in emergencies, schools sort students into three groups: those who'll pass anyway (ignored), those with potential (given help), and 'hopeless cases' (also ignored). Working-class students often get labelled as hopeless cases based on stereotypes, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure.
4
of 9
Pupil Subcultures
When students get labelled and streamed, they don't just accept it - they form pupil subcultures (groups with shared values and behaviours) as their response.
Lacey explained this through two processes. Differentiation is how teachers categorise students - high-ability students get high status, low-ability students get low status. Polarisation is how students react by moving to opposite extremes.
High-stream students form pro-school subcultures - they accept school values and gain status through academic success. Low-stream students suffer damaged self-esteem and form anti-school subcultures to gain status differently.
The Irony: Anti-school subcultures help students cope with failure, but they also guarantee continued failure by rejecting the very things that lead to success.
Ball's study at Beachside school showed what happened when streaming was abolished. The polarisation into subcultures largely disappeared, but teachers still labelled middle-class students more positively, and they still achieved better results. This proves that inequalities can continue even without streaming.
5
of 9
Alternative Responses and Criticisms
Not everyone fits neatly into pro-school or anti-school categories. Woods identified other responses like being the teacher's pet, going through the motions, daydreaming, or outright rebellion.
Furlong found that many students switch between different responses depending on the situation - you might behave differently in maths compared to PE, or with strict teachers versus relaxed ones.
Critics argue that labelling theory is too deterministic - it assumes labelled students have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy. Studies like Fuller's show this isn't always true - some students can reject negative labels and succeed anyway.
Marxist Perspective: The real issue isn't individual teacher prejudice, but that teachers work in a system designed to reproduce class divisions.
Marxists say labelling theory focuses too much on what happens between teachers and students, whilst ignoring the bigger picture - that schools are part of a system that maintains inequality in society.
6
of 9
Class Identity and School Culture
Archer used Bourdieu's concept of habitus - basically the learned ways of thinking and acting that come from your social class background, including your tastes, preferences and lifestyle choices.
Schools have a middle-class habitus - they value middle-class tastes and culture whilst seeing working-class culture as inferior. This gives middle-class students automatic advantages whilst making working-class students feel like education isn't 'for people like us'.
Working-class students told Archer they felt that being educationally successful meant 'losing yourself' - changing how you talk and present yourself. University and professional careers seemed like 'posh' spaces they wouldn't fit into.
Identity Crisis: Students face a choice between maintaining their working-class identity or abandoning it to succeed in education's middle-class world.
Many students dealt with this by investing in 'styles' - especially branded clothing like Nike - as a way of creating self-worth and status among their peers. This 'street style' helped them feel authentic and protected them from bullying, but it often clashed with school dress codes.
7
of 9
Nike Identities and Self-Exclusion
Working-class students saw their Nike styles and street culture as essential parts of who they were. Wearing the right brands earned respect from friends and kept them safe, but teachers often saw these styles as showing 'bad taste' or rebellion.
This created a symbolic violence - the school's middle-class values made working-class students feel their identities were worthless, leading them to find other ways of proving their worth.
Students rejected higher education for three reasons: it wasn't for 'people like us' (unrealistic), they couldn't afford it and saw it as risky (unrealistic), and it didn't suit their preferred lifestyle (undesirable).
Self-Exclusion: Rather than just failing, many working-class students actively choose to reject education because it conflicts with their identity and way of life.
Ingram's study found that working-class identity was inseparable from belonging to working-class communities. Grammar school boys felt torn between their neighbourhood's expectations and their school's middle-class culture - feeling 'worthless at school for wearing certain clothes and worthless at home for not'.
8
of 9
Hidden Barriers and Elite Universities
The 'habitus' creates invisible barriers that stop working-class students even considering elite universities like Oxford or Cambridge. Bourdieu called this thinking 'not for the likes of us' - it becomes so much part of their identity that they exclude themselves.
Reay pointed out that this self-exclusion seriously limits working-class students' options and success. The education system forces an impossible choice: maintain your working-class identity or abandon it to succeed academically.
Maguire described her grammar school experience: 'the working-class subcultural capital of my childhood counted for nothing in this new setting.' This shows how moving into middle-class educational spaces can feel like losing part of yourself.
The Impossible Choice: Working-class students must choose between staying true to themselves or conforming to succeed - a choice middle-class students never face.
Studies consistently show that the middle-class education system devalues working-class experiences as worthless or inappropriate, creating a pattern where working-class students feel forced to choose between their identity and educational success.
9
of 9
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Sociology642 views·Updated May 18, 2026·9 pagesInternal School Factors Influencing Class Achievement
S
simranjeey@simranjeey_djsyzjrig
Ever wondered why your background seems to affect how teachers treat you? This section explores how what happens inside schools - from teacher expectations to friendship groups - can create or widen the achievement gap between different social classes.
1
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
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Class and Achievement: Internal Factors
Labelling is basically when teachers stick mental tags on students - calling them 'bright', 'troublemaker', 'hardworking' or 'thick'. Here's the problem: research shows teachers often make these judgements based on stereotypes about your family background rather than your actual ability.
Becker's study found that teachers had a mental image of the 'ideal pupil' in their heads. Middle-class students fitted this image perfectly, whilst working-class students were seen as furthest from it - often just because teachers thought they'd misbehave.
Jorgensen discovered something interesting when comparing two primary schools. In the working-class school, teachers valued quiet, obedient behaviour above everything else because they saw discipline as their biggest challenge. In the middle-class school, teachers focused on personality and academic ability instead.
Key Point: Teachers' expectations aren't just about your work - they're shaped by assumptions about your background that you can't control.
Dunne and Gazeley found that teachers made different assumptions about parents too. They labelled working-class parents as uninterested, but middle-class parents as supportive. This led to totally different treatment - middle-class underachievers got extension work, whilst working-class students got entered for easier exams.
2
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
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Early Labelling and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Rist's research shows labelling starts incredibly early. A teacher divided her class into three groups based on home background and appearance - the 'tigers' sat closest to her and got the most encouragement, whilst the 'cardinals' and 'clowns' sat further away with lower-level books.
The self-fulfilling prophecy is when a prediction comes true simply because someone believes it will happen. It works in three steps: teachers label you, treat you according to that label, then you start believing it yourself and actually become what they expected.
Rosenthal and Jacobson's famous study proved this works. They randomly picked 20% of students and told teachers these pupils would 'spurt ahead' academically. By the end of the year, those randomly selected students had actually improved more than the others.
Reality Check: The students were chosen completely at random - it was purely the teachers' changed expectations and behaviour that made the difference.
This shows how powerful teacher beliefs can be. When teachers expect more from you, they give you more attention, encouragement and higher-standard work. You pick up on this positive energy, try harder, and actually do better.
3
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Streaming and the A-to-C Economy
Streaming means dividing students into different ability groups for all subjects. Once you're in a lower stream, it's incredibly difficult to move up - you're basically stuck with your teachers' low expectations of you.
Douglas found that children placed in higher streams at age 8 had actually improved their IQ scores by age 11. This suggests streaming doesn't just reflect ability - it actually creates it.
Gillborn and Youdell studied how schools focus on league table positions (rankings based on exam results). They called this the 'A-to-C Economy' - where schools put most effort into students they think can get five good GCSEs to boost their ranking.
Think About It: Schools are basically businesses competing for students and funding - your education gets shaped by this competition.
This creates 'educational triage' - like medical staff in emergencies, schools sort students into three groups: those who'll pass anyway (ignored), those with potential (given help), and 'hopeless cases' (also ignored). Working-class students often get labelled as hopeless cases based on stereotypes, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure.
4
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
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Pupil Subcultures
When students get labelled and streamed, they don't just accept it - they form pupil subcultures (groups with shared values and behaviours) as their response.
Lacey explained this through two processes. Differentiation is how teachers categorise students - high-ability students get high status, low-ability students get low status. Polarisation is how students react by moving to opposite extremes.
High-stream students form pro-school subcultures - they accept school values and gain status through academic success. Low-stream students suffer damaged self-esteem and form anti-school subcultures to gain status differently.
The Irony: Anti-school subcultures help students cope with failure, but they also guarantee continued failure by rejecting the very things that lead to success.
Ball's study at Beachside school showed what happened when streaming was abolished. The polarisation into subcultures largely disappeared, but teachers still labelled middle-class students more positively, and they still achieved better results. This proves that inequalities can continue even without streaming.
5
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Alternative Responses and Criticisms
Not everyone fits neatly into pro-school or anti-school categories. Woods identified other responses like being the teacher's pet, going through the motions, daydreaming, or outright rebellion.
Furlong found that many students switch between different responses depending on the situation - you might behave differently in maths compared to PE, or with strict teachers versus relaxed ones.
Critics argue that labelling theory is too deterministic - it assumes labelled students have no choice but to fulfil the prophecy. Studies like Fuller's show this isn't always true - some students can reject negative labels and succeed anyway.
Marxist Perspective: The real issue isn't individual teacher prejudice, but that teachers work in a system designed to reproduce class divisions.
Marxists say labelling theory focuses too much on what happens between teachers and students, whilst ignoring the bigger picture - that schools are part of a system that maintains inequality in society.
6
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
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Class Identity and School Culture
Archer used Bourdieu's concept of habitus - basically the learned ways of thinking and acting that come from your social class background, including your tastes, preferences and lifestyle choices.
Schools have a middle-class habitus - they value middle-class tastes and culture whilst seeing working-class culture as inferior. This gives middle-class students automatic advantages whilst making working-class students feel like education isn't 'for people like us'.
Working-class students told Archer they felt that being educationally successful meant 'losing yourself' - changing how you talk and present yourself. University and professional careers seemed like 'posh' spaces they wouldn't fit into.
Identity Crisis: Students face a choice between maintaining their working-class identity or abandoning it to succeed in education's middle-class world.
Many students dealt with this by investing in 'styles' - especially branded clothing like Nike - as a way of creating self-worth and status among their peers. This 'street style' helped them feel authentic and protected them from bullying, but it often clashed with school dress codes.
7
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
Nike Identities and Self-Exclusion
Working-class students saw their Nike styles and street culture as essential parts of who they were. Wearing the right brands earned respect from friends and kept them safe, but teachers often saw these styles as showing 'bad taste' or rebellion.
This created a symbolic violence - the school's middle-class values made working-class students feel their identities were worthless, leading them to find other ways of proving their worth.
Students rejected higher education for three reasons: it wasn't for 'people like us' (unrealistic), they couldn't afford it and saw it as risky (unrealistic), and it didn't suit their preferred lifestyle (undesirable).
Self-Exclusion: Rather than just failing, many working-class students actively choose to reject education because it conflicts with their identity and way of life.
Ingram's study found that working-class identity was inseparable from belonging to working-class communities. Grammar school boys felt torn between their neighbourhood's expectations and their school's middle-class culture - feeling 'worthless at school for wearing certain clothes and worthless at home for not'.
8
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
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Hidden Barriers and Elite Universities
The 'habitus' creates invisible barriers that stop working-class students even considering elite universities like Oxford or Cambridge. Bourdieu called this thinking 'not for the likes of us' - it becomes so much part of their identity that they exclude themselves.
Reay pointed out that this self-exclusion seriously limits working-class students' options and success. The education system forces an impossible choice: maintain your working-class identity or abandon it to succeed academically.
Maguire described her grammar school experience: 'the working-class subcultural capital of my childhood counted for nothing in this new setting.' This shows how moving into middle-class educational spaces can feel like losing part of yourself.
The Impossible Choice: Working-class students must choose between staying true to themselves or conforming to succeed - a choice middle-class students never face.
Studies consistently show that the middle-class education system devalues working-class experiences as worthless or inappropriate, creating a pattern where working-class students feel forced to choose between their identity and educational success.
9
of 9Sign up to see the content. It's free!
- Access to all documents
- Improve your grades
- Join milions of students
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Explore the key concepts of educational inequalities, including gender socialization, ethnic achievement, and the role of education in social stratification. This summary covers critical sociological theories, such as labeling and subcultural theory, and examines the impact of cultural deprivation and material factors on educational outcomes. Ideal for sociology students preparing for exams or seeking to understand the complexities of education and its societal implications.
125,717238
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123,49687
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