Research Methods Overview

Quantitative methods are preferred by positivists who seek measurable data. Lab experiments offer reliability and clear cause-effect relationships, but suffer from the Hawthorne effect (where subjects change behaviour when observed) and often lack representation of real-world scenarios. Field experiments improve validity but struggle with informed consent issues.

Questionnaires provide quick, cheap, and reliable data collection, though they typically have lower validity and response rates. Structured interviews offer similar advantages but often fail to capture deeper meanings. Official statistics are economical and show useful trends, but may contain errors or reflect government priorities rather than research needs.

Qualitative methods are favoured by interpretivists seeking deeper understanding. Unstructured interviews and participant observation both offer high validity but struggle with reliability and representativeness. Personal and historical documents provide valuable insights but may be difficult to obtain or incomplete.

Remember this! The choice between quantitative and qualitative methods reflects a fundamental division in sociology between those who seek to measure society objectively and those who aim to understand it from within.

Sociology as Science and Theoretical Perspectives

The debate about sociology as a science divides sociologists. Positivists like Comte argue sociology discovers social laws similar to physical sciences, while Durkheim viewed social facts as observable phenomena. Critics such as Popper argue sociology lacks falsifiability, and Kuhn notes sociology lacks a dominant paradigm needed for scientific status.

Objectivity and values present another crucial debate. Positivists believe sociology can be value-free, while interpretivists argue it's inherently subjective. Weber takes a middle position, suggesting researchers must acknowledge their values but strive for objectivity in data collection.

Functionalism uses an organic analogy where society works as an integrated system. Parsons argued society needs shared values for social order and identified system needs like goal attainment. Functionalists distinguish between traditional societies (with ascribed status) and modern societies (with achieved status).

Feminism offers varied perspectives on gender inequality. Liberal feminists like Oakley distinguish between biological sex and social gender, seeing progress through policy changes. Radical feminists identify patriarchy as the main oppressor, while Marxist feminists blame capitalism for women's subordination. Difference feminists criticize other feminist approaches for ignoring diversity among women.

Think critically! Each theoretical perspective offers unique insights but also has limitations in explaining social reality completely. How might different perspectives complement each other?

Marxism and Action Theory

Marxism identifies three historical class societies: feudal (exploiting serfs), ancient (exploiting slaves), and capitalist (exploiting wage laborers). In capitalism, the proletariat are separated from production means and must sell their labour to the bourgeoisie for minimal wages. Marx predicted that class consciousness would eventually lead workers to overthrow capitalism.

Action theory focuses on micro-level individual actions and interactions rather than large social structures. Weber identified four types of social action: affective (emotional), traditional (habitual), and two forms of rational action—instrumental $efficiency-focused$ and value-based $purpose-focused$.

Phenomenology examines consciousness from the first-person perspective, suggesting we share a society based on common typifications of objects and ideas. Ethnomethodology studies how people make sense of their world through recognizing behavioural patterns in various situations.

Critics argue that action theory fails to explain larger social functioning because of its focus on individual meanings and small-scale interactions. This approach may miss broader structural issues that shape society beyond individual awareness.

Make connections! Notice how Marxism's focus on economic structures contrasts with action theory's emphasis on individual meaning-making. Both perspectives offer valuable but different insights into social reality.

Modern Society and Social Policy

Globalisation refers to increasing worldwide interconnectedness through cultural, political, technological, and economic changes. In postmodern society, media creates hyper reality where distinguishing reality from images becomes difficult, potentially undermining our ability to improve society. Giddens describes late modernity as "disembedded"—traditions no longer guide behaviour, forcing constant reflection on our actions.

Different perspectives view social policy distinctly. Functionalists believe sociological research should inform policies that help society function properly. The New Right advocates minimal state involvement, wanting policies that restore individual responsibility. Marxists acknowledge that social policies may benefit workers but view these gains as precarious.

Feminists argue that social policies often subordinate women through emphasis on the nuclear family. Postmodernists question the value of policies altogether since they doubt sociology provides objective truth. Social democrats believe policies can effectively reduce inequality when properly implemented.

Understanding these perspectives helps us evaluate how different sociological approaches view the role of government intervention in addressing social issues.

Apply this! Next time you hear about a new government policy, try analyzing it through different sociological perspectives. How might a Marxist, functionalist, or feminist interpret the same policy?