Maths
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Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
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Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
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26
•
14 Dec 2025
•
Charlotte Holdsworth
@choldsworth2007
The psychodynamic approach, pioneered by Freud, explains human behaviour through... Show more
The psychodynamic approach is built on the belief that childhood experiences shape adult behaviour. Freud identified psychosexual stages of development, including oral , anal , phallic , latency , and genital (puberty onwards). Fixations at any stage, especially oral or anal, can significantly influence adult personality.
The unconscious mind is another cornerstone of this theory. It contains repressed memories, instincts, and unresolved conflicts that affect our thoughts and behaviours without our awareness. To protect ourselves from anxiety, we use defence mechanisms like repression, denial, displacement, and projection.
According to Freud, our personality has three parts: the Id , the Ego (rational, balances demands), and the Superego (morality, conscience). An imbalance between these can lead to various behavioural issues—a weak superego might lead to risk-taking and criminal behaviour, while an overactive one could cause guilt-driven actions.
Remember this! When studying the psychodynamic approach, think about how your own childhood experiences might have shaped who you are today—this personal connection makes the theory easier to understand and remember.
The psychodynamic approach offers fascinating insights into why people might engage in criminal behaviour. A person with a weak superego may be prone to impulsive actions and risk-taking, potentially leading to criminal activity because they lack the moral restraint that typically prevents such behaviour.
Defence mechanisms can significantly distort our perception of reality. For example, displacement allows a person to redirect feelings of anger or frustration from their original source to a safer target, potentially explaining some violent behaviours. Cohen et al. (1959) found that delinquent adolescents used more immature defence mechanisms than their non-delinquent peers, supporting this connection.
The balance of the tripartite personality plays a crucial role in behaviour. A dominant Id can result in selfish, antisocial behaviour that characterises psychopathy, while an overactive superego might paradoxically drive someone to commit crimes to satisfy their conscience through punishment. These insights help explain complex criminal behaviours beyond simple explanations of "bad choices."
Quick tip: Think of the Id, Ego, and Superego as three characters in your mind constantly negotiating with each other—the Id wants immediate pleasure, the Superego insists on following rules, and the Ego tries to find practical compromises.
Your ability to form healthy relationships as an adult is deeply influenced by your childhood experiences, according to psychodynamic theory. Successfully resolving each psychosexual stage is crucial for developing mature relationships later in life. Fixations, particularly in the phallic stage, can create significant relationship problems in adulthood.
The unconscious mind plays a powerful role in our relationship choices. We may unknowingly select partners who resemble our parents or project our own fears onto them. These unconscious patterns often explain why some people repeatedly form destructive relationships despite consciously wanting something different.
The balance between Id, Ego, and Superego affects relationship success. A dominant Id may lead to selfish, aggressive relationships focused only on personal gratification. Conversely, an overly strong Superego might create relationships lacking in pleasure and satisfaction due to excessive moralism. A well-balanced Ego typically supports healthier, more stable relationships.
Did you know? Freud's controversial Oedipus/Electra complex theory suggests that unsuccessful resolution of attraction to the opposite-sex parent during the phallic stage can create lasting difficulties in forming mature romantic relationships as adults.
Dream analysis offers a fascinating glimpse into your unconscious mind, revealing repressed thoughts and desires that might not be accessible during waking hours. This therapeutic technique connects directly to the psychodynamic assumption about the unconscious mind, suggesting that dreams can reveal early childhood traumas and conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego.
The process begins with the dream description, where you share your dream's manifest content (the story as you remember it). Next comes the dreamwork process, where the therapist interprets the latent content (true unconscious meaning) through various mechanisms. These include symbolism (objects representing deeper meanings), displacement (transferring emotions to less significant things), condensation (merging several ideas), and secondary elaboration (your conscious mind making the dream coherent).
Finally, the therapist works with you to interpret these elements, uncovering hidden material and encouraging emotional release. This process can be powerful because it bypasses your conscious defences, allowing access to thoughts and feelings you might otherwise repress or deny.
Make the connection: Think about a recent dream you had—what symbols appeared? Could those symbols represent something deeper from your unconscious mind? This personal reflection helps you grasp how dream analysis works.
Dream analysis has shown promising results in treating mental disorders like depression and anxiety. Studies support its effectiveness—Matt and Navarro (1997) found that 75% of clients receiving dream analysis showed improvements, while Schreder et al. (2000) reported benefits in approximately 70% of patients. These findings suggest dream analysis can successfully uncover and address root causes of psychological issues.
However, there are significant limitations to this therapeutic approach. Dream analysis has less empirical support than other treatments like cognitive behavioural therapy. Critics like Hobson and McCarey (1997) argue that dreams are simply random brain commands or thinking during sleep, challenging Freud's idea that dreams fulfil unconscious wishes. This scientific uncertainty makes dream analysis difficult to validate.
Ethical considerations are crucial when using dream analysis. Valid consent is essential as the process may uncover emotionally distressing memories, and clients must understand what they're committing to before beginning. The power imbalance between therapist and client creates a risk of over-reliance and potential manipulation, requiring careful management by the therapist.
Important consideration: When learning about dream analysis, remember that all therapies carry potential risks alongside their benefits. Being aware of both strengthens your critical thinking about psychological treatments.
Dream analysis poses significant ethical risks including potential stress, anxiety, and emotional distress. A therapist might inadvertently lead a client towards an interpretation that uncovers past trauma or even creates false memories. This delicate process requires therapists to carefully balance exploration with client protection, always informing clients of their right to withdraw if sessions become too distressing.
Despite these concerns, dream analysis offers unique benefits for treating depression and anxiety by addressing root causes in early childhood experiences. While it can be a lengthy process, many practitioners believe it provides significant long-term benefits that other, more symptom-focused approaches might miss.
For dream analysis to be conducted ethically, therapists must maintain awareness of the power imbalance inherent in the therapeutic relationship. They must prevent client over-reliance and ensure interpretations remain contextually appropriate to the client's life circumstances. These ethical safeguards help maximise benefits while minimising potential harm.
Exam tip: When evaluating therapeutic approaches, always consider both effectiveness (does it work?) and ethics (is it conducted responsibly?). This balanced analysis demonstrates sophisticated understanding of psychological treatments.
Bowlby's influential case study examined the link between early childhood experiences and delinquent behaviour. He studied 44 juvenile thieves (31 boys, 13 girls) aged 5-17, comparing them with a control group of 44 emotionally disturbed but non-delinquent children. This methodical approach allowed him to isolate factors specifically connected to stealing behaviour.
The study procedure was thorough. Each child was assessed by a psychiatrist upon arrival at the clinic, while a social worker recorded their early experiences. Weekly sessions with the psychiatrist analysed behaviour patterns, with particular focus on identifying affectionless psychopathy. Parents were also interviewed about their child's developmental history, with most cases being followed for over six months.
Bowlby's findings were striking: 14 of the 44 thieves were identified as affectionless psychopaths (showing an inability to form emotional connections). Of these 14, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mother before age 5—a pattern seen in only 2 children from the control group. This led Bowlby to conclude that maternal deprivation in early childhood was strongly linked to emotional maladjustment and criminal behaviour later in life.
Connect the dots: This study provides real-world evidence for the psychodynamic assumption that early childhood experiences shape adult behaviour. Can you see how this research supports Freud's theories about development?
Bowlby's study classified the juvenile thieves into different character types, with affectionless psychopaths (14) and those with "normal" personalities (13) being the most common. Interestingly, children with more severe character types (particularly the affectionless group) typically demonstrated higher grades of stealing behaviour, suggesting a correlation between emotional development and delinquency.
The study's conclusion that maternal deprivation leads to emotional maladjustment and criminal behaviour has been hugely influential. Bowlby found that 17 of the 44 thieves had experienced maternal deprivation, and 14 of these were classified as affectionless psychopaths. These children lacked emotional bonds and later showed delinquent behaviour, supporting psychodynamic views on early childhood impact.
However, the study raises significant ethical concerns. Participants weren't protected from potential harm, and informed consent wasn't obtained—practices unacceptable by today's standards. Perhaps most problematically, Bowlby himself both diagnosed and assessed the children, creating a dual role that introduced potential bias and may have influenced children's responses, undermining the study's objectivity.
Critical thinking prompt: Consider how Bowlby's personal beliefs about the importance of the mother-child relationship might have influenced how he interpreted his findings. Would a researcher with different views have reached the same conclusions?
The validity of Bowlby's study has been questioned due to several methodological issues. As a retrospective case study based on Bowlby's own interpretations, it was vulnerable to researcher bias—he may have shaped his conclusions to support his existing theory. Additionally, retrospective data can be inaccurate, weakening both the internal validity and reliability of the study's results.
Bowlby's findings have had profound social implications for parenting roles. By suggesting that maternal deprivation causes emotional damage, the study implies mothers should stay home with their children. This has reinforced traditional gender roles and placed pressure on women to avoid working, potentially increasing guilt and limiting economic freedom for mothers. These ideas have influenced public attitudes and policies about childcare and maternal employment for generations.
The economic impact of these ideas remains relevant today. Childcare costs in the UK can prevent parents, especially mothers, from returning to work. The Family and Childcare Trust has reported average childcare costs of approximately £12,000 a year per child under two, making working financially inviable for many parents. This leads to reduced household income and limits career progression, highlighting the need for affordable childcare options.
Real-world connection: The legacy of Bowlby's work still affects policy debates about parental leave, childcare subsidies, and work-life balance. These aren't just academic theories but ideas that shape real families' lives and choices.
One major criticism of the psychodynamic approach is its lack of scientific rigour. Many of its core concepts, like the unconscious mind and the tripartite personality, are difficult to falsify or test empirically. This makes it challenging to generate testable hypotheses—how do you measure or control for concepts like the Id, Ego, and Superego? This lack of objective, scientific methods contrasts with other psychological approaches that rely on empirical evidence.
Despite these limitations, the psychodynamic approach has valuable practical applications in therapy. Evidence from Bergin et al. (1981) showed that approximately 80% of clients improved through psychodynamic therapy. This approach has helped mental health professionals understand and treat various disorders, particularly those rooted in early experiences.
The psychodynamic perspective offers a balanced view of nature and nurture. It acknowledges innate drives (nature) while emphasising how early childhood experiences shape personality development (nurture). However, it's often criticised as overly deterministic—suggesting that behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences leaves little room for free will or personal choice.
Exam application: When evaluating psychological approaches, always balance strengths against limitations. Notice how the psychodynamic approach's clinical usefulness counterbalances its scientific limitations—this nuanced understanding will strengthen your exam responses.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
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The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
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In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
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very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
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I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
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THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
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This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Charlotte Holdsworth
@choldsworth2007
The psychodynamic approach, pioneered by Freud, explains human behaviour through unconscious processes and early childhood experiences. This theory suggests our adult personalities and relationships are shaped by early development stages and internal mental conflicts. Understanding these concepts can help explain... Show more
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The psychodynamic approach is built on the belief that childhood experiences shape adult behaviour. Freud identified psychosexual stages of development, including oral , anal , phallic , latency , and genital (puberty onwards). Fixations at any stage, especially oral or anal, can significantly influence adult personality.
The unconscious mind is another cornerstone of this theory. It contains repressed memories, instincts, and unresolved conflicts that affect our thoughts and behaviours without our awareness. To protect ourselves from anxiety, we use defence mechanisms like repression, denial, displacement, and projection.
According to Freud, our personality has three parts: the Id , the Ego (rational, balances demands), and the Superego (morality, conscience). An imbalance between these can lead to various behavioural issues—a weak superego might lead to risk-taking and criminal behaviour, while an overactive one could cause guilt-driven actions.
Remember this! When studying the psychodynamic approach, think about how your own childhood experiences might have shaped who you are today—this personal connection makes the theory easier to understand and remember.
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The psychodynamic approach offers fascinating insights into why people might engage in criminal behaviour. A person with a weak superego may be prone to impulsive actions and risk-taking, potentially leading to criminal activity because they lack the moral restraint that typically prevents such behaviour.
Defence mechanisms can significantly distort our perception of reality. For example, displacement allows a person to redirect feelings of anger or frustration from their original source to a safer target, potentially explaining some violent behaviours. Cohen et al. (1959) found that delinquent adolescents used more immature defence mechanisms than their non-delinquent peers, supporting this connection.
The balance of the tripartite personality plays a crucial role in behaviour. A dominant Id can result in selfish, antisocial behaviour that characterises psychopathy, while an overactive superego might paradoxically drive someone to commit crimes to satisfy their conscience through punishment. These insights help explain complex criminal behaviours beyond simple explanations of "bad choices."
Quick tip: Think of the Id, Ego, and Superego as three characters in your mind constantly negotiating with each other—the Id wants immediate pleasure, the Superego insists on following rules, and the Ego tries to find practical compromises.
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Your ability to form healthy relationships as an adult is deeply influenced by your childhood experiences, according to psychodynamic theory. Successfully resolving each psychosexual stage is crucial for developing mature relationships later in life. Fixations, particularly in the phallic stage, can create significant relationship problems in adulthood.
The unconscious mind plays a powerful role in our relationship choices. We may unknowingly select partners who resemble our parents or project our own fears onto them. These unconscious patterns often explain why some people repeatedly form destructive relationships despite consciously wanting something different.
The balance between Id, Ego, and Superego affects relationship success. A dominant Id may lead to selfish, aggressive relationships focused only on personal gratification. Conversely, an overly strong Superego might create relationships lacking in pleasure and satisfaction due to excessive moralism. A well-balanced Ego typically supports healthier, more stable relationships.
Did you know? Freud's controversial Oedipus/Electra complex theory suggests that unsuccessful resolution of attraction to the opposite-sex parent during the phallic stage can create lasting difficulties in forming mature romantic relationships as adults.
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Dream analysis offers a fascinating glimpse into your unconscious mind, revealing repressed thoughts and desires that might not be accessible during waking hours. This therapeutic technique connects directly to the psychodynamic assumption about the unconscious mind, suggesting that dreams can reveal early childhood traumas and conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego.
The process begins with the dream description, where you share your dream's manifest content (the story as you remember it). Next comes the dreamwork process, where the therapist interprets the latent content (true unconscious meaning) through various mechanisms. These include symbolism (objects representing deeper meanings), displacement (transferring emotions to less significant things), condensation (merging several ideas), and secondary elaboration (your conscious mind making the dream coherent).
Finally, the therapist works with you to interpret these elements, uncovering hidden material and encouraging emotional release. This process can be powerful because it bypasses your conscious defences, allowing access to thoughts and feelings you might otherwise repress or deny.
Make the connection: Think about a recent dream you had—what symbols appeared? Could those symbols represent something deeper from your unconscious mind? This personal reflection helps you grasp how dream analysis works.
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Dream analysis has shown promising results in treating mental disorders like depression and anxiety. Studies support its effectiveness—Matt and Navarro (1997) found that 75% of clients receiving dream analysis showed improvements, while Schreder et al. (2000) reported benefits in approximately 70% of patients. These findings suggest dream analysis can successfully uncover and address root causes of psychological issues.
However, there are significant limitations to this therapeutic approach. Dream analysis has less empirical support than other treatments like cognitive behavioural therapy. Critics like Hobson and McCarey (1997) argue that dreams are simply random brain commands or thinking during sleep, challenging Freud's idea that dreams fulfil unconscious wishes. This scientific uncertainty makes dream analysis difficult to validate.
Ethical considerations are crucial when using dream analysis. Valid consent is essential as the process may uncover emotionally distressing memories, and clients must understand what they're committing to before beginning. The power imbalance between therapist and client creates a risk of over-reliance and potential manipulation, requiring careful management by the therapist.
Important consideration: When learning about dream analysis, remember that all therapies carry potential risks alongside their benefits. Being aware of both strengthens your critical thinking about psychological treatments.
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Dream analysis poses significant ethical risks including potential stress, anxiety, and emotional distress. A therapist might inadvertently lead a client towards an interpretation that uncovers past trauma or even creates false memories. This delicate process requires therapists to carefully balance exploration with client protection, always informing clients of their right to withdraw if sessions become too distressing.
Despite these concerns, dream analysis offers unique benefits for treating depression and anxiety by addressing root causes in early childhood experiences. While it can be a lengthy process, many practitioners believe it provides significant long-term benefits that other, more symptom-focused approaches might miss.
For dream analysis to be conducted ethically, therapists must maintain awareness of the power imbalance inherent in the therapeutic relationship. They must prevent client over-reliance and ensure interpretations remain contextually appropriate to the client's life circumstances. These ethical safeguards help maximise benefits while minimising potential harm.
Exam tip: When evaluating therapeutic approaches, always consider both effectiveness (does it work?) and ethics (is it conducted responsibly?). This balanced analysis demonstrates sophisticated understanding of psychological treatments.
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Bowlby's influential case study examined the link between early childhood experiences and delinquent behaviour. He studied 44 juvenile thieves (31 boys, 13 girls) aged 5-17, comparing them with a control group of 44 emotionally disturbed but non-delinquent children. This methodical approach allowed him to isolate factors specifically connected to stealing behaviour.
The study procedure was thorough. Each child was assessed by a psychiatrist upon arrival at the clinic, while a social worker recorded their early experiences. Weekly sessions with the psychiatrist analysed behaviour patterns, with particular focus on identifying affectionless psychopathy. Parents were also interviewed about their child's developmental history, with most cases being followed for over six months.
Bowlby's findings were striking: 14 of the 44 thieves were identified as affectionless psychopaths (showing an inability to form emotional connections). Of these 14, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mother before age 5—a pattern seen in only 2 children from the control group. This led Bowlby to conclude that maternal deprivation in early childhood was strongly linked to emotional maladjustment and criminal behaviour later in life.
Connect the dots: This study provides real-world evidence for the psychodynamic assumption that early childhood experiences shape adult behaviour. Can you see how this research supports Freud's theories about development?
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Bowlby's study classified the juvenile thieves into different character types, with affectionless psychopaths (14) and those with "normal" personalities (13) being the most common. Interestingly, children with more severe character types (particularly the affectionless group) typically demonstrated higher grades of stealing behaviour, suggesting a correlation between emotional development and delinquency.
The study's conclusion that maternal deprivation leads to emotional maladjustment and criminal behaviour has been hugely influential. Bowlby found that 17 of the 44 thieves had experienced maternal deprivation, and 14 of these were classified as affectionless psychopaths. These children lacked emotional bonds and later showed delinquent behaviour, supporting psychodynamic views on early childhood impact.
However, the study raises significant ethical concerns. Participants weren't protected from potential harm, and informed consent wasn't obtained—practices unacceptable by today's standards. Perhaps most problematically, Bowlby himself both diagnosed and assessed the children, creating a dual role that introduced potential bias and may have influenced children's responses, undermining the study's objectivity.
Critical thinking prompt: Consider how Bowlby's personal beliefs about the importance of the mother-child relationship might have influenced how he interpreted his findings. Would a researcher with different views have reached the same conclusions?
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The validity of Bowlby's study has been questioned due to several methodological issues. As a retrospective case study based on Bowlby's own interpretations, it was vulnerable to researcher bias—he may have shaped his conclusions to support his existing theory. Additionally, retrospective data can be inaccurate, weakening both the internal validity and reliability of the study's results.
Bowlby's findings have had profound social implications for parenting roles. By suggesting that maternal deprivation causes emotional damage, the study implies mothers should stay home with their children. This has reinforced traditional gender roles and placed pressure on women to avoid working, potentially increasing guilt and limiting economic freedom for mothers. These ideas have influenced public attitudes and policies about childcare and maternal employment for generations.
The economic impact of these ideas remains relevant today. Childcare costs in the UK can prevent parents, especially mothers, from returning to work. The Family and Childcare Trust has reported average childcare costs of approximately £12,000 a year per child under two, making working financially inviable for many parents. This leads to reduced household income and limits career progression, highlighting the need for affordable childcare options.
Real-world connection: The legacy of Bowlby's work still affects policy debates about parental leave, childcare subsidies, and work-life balance. These aren't just academic theories but ideas that shape real families' lives and choices.
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Improve your grades
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One major criticism of the psychodynamic approach is its lack of scientific rigour. Many of its core concepts, like the unconscious mind and the tripartite personality, are difficult to falsify or test empirically. This makes it challenging to generate testable hypotheses—how do you measure or control for concepts like the Id, Ego, and Superego? This lack of objective, scientific methods contrasts with other psychological approaches that rely on empirical evidence.
Despite these limitations, the psychodynamic approach has valuable practical applications in therapy. Evidence from Bergin et al. (1981) showed that approximately 80% of clients improved through psychodynamic therapy. This approach has helped mental health professionals understand and treat various disorders, particularly those rooted in early experiences.
The psychodynamic perspective offers a balanced view of nature and nurture. It acknowledges innate drives (nature) while emphasising how early childhood experiences shape personality development (nurture). However, it's often criticised as overly deterministic—suggesting that behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences leaves little room for free will or personal choice.
Exam application: When evaluating psychological approaches, always balance strengths against limitations. Notice how the psychodynamic approach's clinical usefulness counterbalances its scientific limitations—this nuanced understanding will strengthen your exam responses.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Psychology
Sociology