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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
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2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
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Psychology
10 Dec 2025
561
5 pages
Ever wondered why you might feel nervous before an exam or why rewards motivate you to study harder?... Show more
Here's where things get controversial - the behaviourist approach has some serious strengths and weaknesses you need to know about. The deterministic nature means it suggests your behaviour is predictable based on rewards and punishments, but this ignores your free will and ability to make conscious choices.
The approach is also reductionist, meaning it oversimplifies complex behaviours by reducing everything to simple stimulus-response patterns. Real-life behaviours like criminal activity involve multiple factors - social background, education, personality, and biology - not just conditioning.
However, there's solid research evidence supporting the approach. Watson and Rayner's Little Albert study successfully conditioned an 11-month-old to fear white rats by pairing them with loud noises, proving classical conditioning works in humans.
Remember While the research is convincing, most studies used animals like dogs and rats, which raises questions about how well findings apply to complex human behaviour.
The behaviourist approach rests on four key ideas that might surprise you. First, all behaviour is learned from experience - we're not born with pre-programmed behaviours. Second, only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically, so forget about trying to measure thoughts or feelings directly.
What's really interesting is that behaviourists believe animal research applies to humans because we all learn through the same basic principles. They also think we're born as a blank slate with no genetic influences on our behaviour - everything comes from learning.
Classical conditioning is learning through association, and it happens passively without you even trying. When two things are repeatedly paired together, you start responding to both in the same way. Think about how hearing your alarm tone might make you feel stressed even when you're not waking up for school - that's classical conditioning in action!
Key insight Classical conditioning explains many of our automatic emotional responses, from phobias to excitement when we hear our favourite song.
Pavlov's famous experiment perfectly demonstrates classical conditioning in action. Initially, food naturally caused dogs to salivate (unconditioned response), whilst a bell produced no response. After repeatedly pairing the bell with food, the dogs learned to salivate just hearing the bell - the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus.
This process follows a clear pattern before conditioning (food → salivation, bell → no response), during conditioning , and after conditioning (bell alone → salivation). Amazingly, this technique is used today to treat alcohol addiction by pairing alcohol with substances that cause vomiting.
Operant conditioning works differently - it's about learning through consequences of your actions. Skinner's rat experiments showed how behaviour changes based on rewards and punishments. When rats accidentally pressed a lever and received food, they quickly learned to press it deliberately.
Real-world application This explains why you're more likely to study when there's a reward (good grades) or avoid certain behaviours to escape punishment.
Using animal studies gives behaviourist research major advantages in terms of scientific control. Researchers can eliminate demand characteristics and individual differences that might skew results when studying humans, making the findings more reliable and precise.
However, this strength creates a significant weakness - extrapolation problems. Just because we can condition rats to press levers or dogs to salivate doesn't necessarily mean human behaviour works the same way.
Human behaviour involves complex cognitive processes, emotions, and social factors that simple animal studies can't capture. While a rat might respond predictably to food rewards, humans make decisions based on values, relationships, and long-term goals that go far beyond basic conditioning principles.
Critical thinking point Consider how much of your own behaviour is truly just stimulus-response versus conscious decision-making - the reality is probably a mix of both.
Skinner's experiments revealed the full complexity of how consequences shape behaviour. When he changed the lever to deliver electric shocks instead of food, the rats quickly stopped pressing it - demonstrating how punishment weakens behaviour by creating negative associations.
The most sophisticated part involved negative reinforcement, where pressing the lever removed an unpleasant stimulus (electric shock) rather than providing a reward. The rats learned to press the lever when a light came on to avoid getting shocked, strengthening the behaviour through removing something negative.
These principles have real-world applications in places like prisons, where token economies reward good behaviour with privileges whilst poor behaviour results in loss of benefits. The key insight is that behaviour is constantly being shaped by its consequences, whether we realise it or not.
Think about it Your own study habits are probably shaped by operant conditioning - you work harder when you see good results (positive reinforcement) and avoid procrastination to prevent stress (negative reinforcement).
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
9
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Ever wondered why you might feel nervous before an exam or why rewards motivate you to study harder? The behaviourist approach explains how all our behaviours are learned through experience, focusing on what we can actually observe and measure rather... Show more
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Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Here's where things get controversial - the behaviourist approach has some serious strengths and weaknesses you need to know about. The deterministic nature means it suggests your behaviour is predictable based on rewards and punishments, but this ignores your free will and ability to make conscious choices.
The approach is also reductionist, meaning it oversimplifies complex behaviours by reducing everything to simple stimulus-response patterns. Real-life behaviours like criminal activity involve multiple factors - social background, education, personality, and biology - not just conditioning.
However, there's solid research evidence supporting the approach. Watson and Rayner's Little Albert study successfully conditioned an 11-month-old to fear white rats by pairing them with loud noises, proving classical conditioning works in humans.
Remember: While the research is convincing, most studies used animals like dogs and rats, which raises questions about how well findings apply to complex human behaviour.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The behaviourist approach rests on four key ideas that might surprise you. First, all behaviour is learned from experience - we're not born with pre-programmed behaviours. Second, only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically, so forget about trying to measure thoughts or feelings directly.
What's really interesting is that behaviourists believe animal research applies to humans because we all learn through the same basic principles. They also think we're born as a blank slate with no genetic influences on our behaviour - everything comes from learning.
Classical conditioning is learning through association, and it happens passively without you even trying. When two things are repeatedly paired together, you start responding to both in the same way. Think about how hearing your alarm tone might make you feel stressed even when you're not waking up for school - that's classical conditioning in action!
Key insight: Classical conditioning explains many of our automatic emotional responses, from phobias to excitement when we hear our favourite song.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Pavlov's famous experiment perfectly demonstrates classical conditioning in action. Initially, food naturally caused dogs to salivate (unconditioned response), whilst a bell produced no response. After repeatedly pairing the bell with food, the dogs learned to salivate just hearing the bell - the neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus.
This process follows a clear pattern: before conditioning (food → salivation, bell → no response), during conditioning , and after conditioning (bell alone → salivation). Amazingly, this technique is used today to treat alcohol addiction by pairing alcohol with substances that cause vomiting.
Operant conditioning works differently - it's about learning through consequences of your actions. Skinner's rat experiments showed how behaviour changes based on rewards and punishments. When rats accidentally pressed a lever and received food, they quickly learned to press it deliberately.
Real-world application: This explains why you're more likely to study when there's a reward (good grades) or avoid certain behaviours to escape punishment.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Using animal studies gives behaviourist research major advantages in terms of scientific control. Researchers can eliminate demand characteristics and individual differences that might skew results when studying humans, making the findings more reliable and precise.
However, this strength creates a significant weakness - extrapolation problems. Just because we can condition rats to press levers or dogs to salivate doesn't necessarily mean human behaviour works the same way.
Human behaviour involves complex cognitive processes, emotions, and social factors that simple animal studies can't capture. While a rat might respond predictably to food rewards, humans make decisions based on values, relationships, and long-term goals that go far beyond basic conditioning principles.
Critical thinking point: Consider how much of your own behaviour is truly just stimulus-response versus conscious decision-making - the reality is probably a mix of both.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Skinner's experiments revealed the full complexity of how consequences shape behaviour. When he changed the lever to deliver electric shocks instead of food, the rats quickly stopped pressing it - demonstrating how punishment weakens behaviour by creating negative associations.
The most sophisticated part involved negative reinforcement, where pressing the lever removed an unpleasant stimulus (electric shock) rather than providing a reward. The rats learned to press the lever when a light came on to avoid getting shocked, strengthening the behaviour through removing something negative.
These principles have real-world applications in places like prisons, where token economies reward good behaviour with privileges whilst poor behaviour results in loss of benefits. The key insight is that behaviour is constantly being shaped by its consequences, whether we realise it or not.
Think about it: Your own study habits are probably shaped by operant conditioning - you work harder when you see good results (positive reinforcement) and avoid procrastination to prevent stress (negative reinforcement).
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
9
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Criminology