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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
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Psychology
5 Dec 2025
57
4 pages
Julianne Croft @julescroft_
Ever wonder how you actually learn new behaviours and habits? Psychology has identified several key ways we pick... Show more
Classical conditioning is basically your brain learning to link things together automatically. It's like when your mouth waters at the smell of your favourite food - you've learned to associate that smell with eating.
The process works in three stages. Before conditioning, you have an unconditioned stimulus (something that naturally triggers a response) causing an unconditioned response (your natural reaction). During conditioning, this natural trigger gets paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus (something that doesn't normally cause the response). After conditioning, that previously neutral thing becomes a conditioned stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.
Pavlov's dogs perfectly demonstrate this - dogs naturally salivate when they see food, but after hearing a bell every time before feeding, they started salivating just at the bell sound. The Little Albert experiment showed how a 9-month-old baby learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud, scary noise. Initially, Albert wasn't bothered by the rat, but after the conditioning, the rat alone made him fearful.
Quick Tip Think of classical conditioning as your brain making automatic connections - like feeling anxious when you hear your exam alarm!
Operant conditioning is all about learning through consequences - basically, you're more likely to repeat behaviours that lead to good outcomes and avoid ones that lead to bad outcomes.
There are three key ways this works. Positive reinforcement means getting a reward for good behaviour, making you want to do it again (like getting praise for tidying your room). Negative reinforcement involves doing something to avoid an unpleasant consequence, which also increases the behaviour (like doing homework to avoid getting in trouble). Punishment gives you something unpleasant after bad behaviour, making you less likely to repeat it.
Skinner's rat experiments proved this theory perfectly. Rats quickly learned to press levers when it gave them food (positive reinforcement), press levers to stop electric shocks (negative reinforcement), or avoid pressing levers that caused shocks (punishment). The rats' behaviour changed based on what happened after their actions.
Remember Operant conditioning is everywhere in your life - from getting good grades for studying to losing privileges for breaking rules!
Motivation is simply your drive to behave in ways that help you reach goals or satisfy needs. Understanding what motivates you can seriously boost your performance and happiness.
You've got two main types of motivation working in your life. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal rewards like enjoyment, challenge, or personal interest - think playing a sport because you love it. Extrinsic motivation involves external rewards or avoiding external punishments - like studying for money or to avoid disappointing parents.
Here's the interesting bit extrinsic motivation can actually undermine intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan explains that self-determined behaviour (driven by intrinsic factors) tends to be more sustainable and satisfying than non-self-determined behaviour (driven purely by external factors). Most real-life situations involve a mix of both types.
Food for Thought Consider what truly motivates you in your favourite subjects versus ones you struggle with - is it internal interest or external pressure?
Social learning theory suggests you learn loads of behaviours simply by watching and copying others around you. It's probably how you picked up most of your social skills without anyone formally teaching you.
Bandura's theory of observational learning identifies four essential conditions for effective learning through observation. You need attention (actually noticing someone's behaviour), retention (remembering what you saw), reproduction (being able to copy the behaviour), and motivation (wanting to demonstrate what you've learned). All four must be present for successful social learning.
Vicarious reinforcement happens when you're more likely to copy behaviours you've seen others get rewarded for. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment showed this perfectly - young children who watched adults being aggressive towards a doll later copied that same aggressive behaviour. Interestingly, children were more likely to imitate role models of the same gender as themselves.
Real-World Connection Think about how you've learned to use social media, dress, or speak - most likely through watching and copying others rather than formal instruction!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
3
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Julianne Croft
@julescroft_
Ever wonder how you actually learn new behaviours and habits? Psychology has identified several key ways we pick up everything from fears to skills - through associations, consequences, internal drives, and copying others.
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Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Classical conditioning is basically your brain learning to link things together automatically. It's like when your mouth waters at the smell of your favourite food - you've learned to associate that smell with eating.
The process works in three stages. Before conditioning, you have an unconditioned stimulus (something that naturally triggers a response) causing an unconditioned response (your natural reaction). During conditioning, this natural trigger gets paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus (something that doesn't normally cause the response). After conditioning, that previously neutral thing becomes a conditioned stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.
Pavlov's dogs perfectly demonstrate this - dogs naturally salivate when they see food, but after hearing a bell every time before feeding, they started salivating just at the bell sound. The Little Albert experiment showed how a 9-month-old baby learned to fear a white rat after it was paired with a loud, scary noise. Initially, Albert wasn't bothered by the rat, but after the conditioning, the rat alone made him fearful.
Quick Tip: Think of classical conditioning as your brain making automatic connections - like feeling anxious when you hear your exam alarm!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Operant conditioning is all about learning through consequences - basically, you're more likely to repeat behaviours that lead to good outcomes and avoid ones that lead to bad outcomes.
There are three key ways this works. Positive reinforcement means getting a reward for good behaviour, making you want to do it again (like getting praise for tidying your room). Negative reinforcement involves doing something to avoid an unpleasant consequence, which also increases the behaviour (like doing homework to avoid getting in trouble). Punishment gives you something unpleasant after bad behaviour, making you less likely to repeat it.
Skinner's rat experiments proved this theory perfectly. Rats quickly learned to press levers when it gave them food (positive reinforcement), press levers to stop electric shocks (negative reinforcement), or avoid pressing levers that caused shocks (punishment). The rats' behaviour changed based on what happened after their actions.
Remember: Operant conditioning is everywhere in your life - from getting good grades for studying to losing privileges for breaking rules!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Motivation is simply your drive to behave in ways that help you reach goals or satisfy needs. Understanding what motivates you can seriously boost your performance and happiness.
You've got two main types of motivation working in your life. Intrinsic motivation comes from internal rewards like enjoyment, challenge, or personal interest - think playing a sport because you love it. Extrinsic motivation involves external rewards or avoiding external punishments - like studying for money or to avoid disappointing parents.
Here's the interesting bit: extrinsic motivation can actually undermine intrinsic motivation. Self-determination theory by Deci and Ryan explains that self-determined behaviour (driven by intrinsic factors) tends to be more sustainable and satisfying than non-self-determined behaviour (driven purely by external factors). Most real-life situations involve a mix of both types.
Food for Thought: Consider what truly motivates you in your favourite subjects versus ones you struggle with - is it internal interest or external pressure?
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Social learning theory suggests you learn loads of behaviours simply by watching and copying others around you. It's probably how you picked up most of your social skills without anyone formally teaching you.
Bandura's theory of observational learning identifies four essential conditions for effective learning through observation. You need attention (actually noticing someone's behaviour), retention (remembering what you saw), reproduction (being able to copy the behaviour), and motivation (wanting to demonstrate what you've learned). All four must be present for successful social learning.
Vicarious reinforcement happens when you're more likely to copy behaviours you've seen others get rewarded for. Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment showed this perfectly - young children who watched adults being aggressive towards a doll later copied that same aggressive behaviour. Interestingly, children were more likely to imitate role models of the same gender as themselves.
Real-World Connection: Think about how you've learned to use social media, dress, or speak - most likely through watching and copying others rather than formal instruction!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
3
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Criminology