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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
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Psychology
9 Dec 2025
108
4 pages
mia @miaratcliff
Ever wondered why some people seem to have stronger moral compasses than others? Kohlberg's groundbreaking study on moral... Show more
Your moral reasoning isn't fixed - it actually develops through distinct stages as you mature. Kohlberg built on earlier theories from Freud (who focused on repressing selfish desires) and Piaget (who studied how children understand concepts like justice and fairness).
Kohlberg conducted a 12-year longitudinal study following 75 American boys aged 10-16 through to their late twenties. He wanted to prove that moral development happens gradually through six specific stages across three levels.
The boys were given hypothetical moral dilemmas - short stories presenting ethical conflicts they had to solve. For example, 10-year-olds were asked whether it's better to save one important person or lots of "unimportant" people, whilst older participants tackled mercy killing scenarios.
Key insight Kohlberg also tested boys from Taiwan, Britain, Canada, Mexico and Turkey using similar moral dilemmas to see if moral development was universal across cultures.
The results showed clear progression through moral stages, though at different speeds. Tommy and Richard, two boys Kohlberg tracked closely, demonstrated this perfectly. At 10, Tommy mixed up a person's value with their possessions (Stage 1), whilst Richard progressed from relying on God's authority at 16 (Stage 4) to developing absolute values of justice by 24 (Stage 6).
Cross-cultural patterns emerged consistently. At age 10, Stage 1 reasoning dominated in all countries. By 16, American teenagers had flipped to mostly Stage 5 thinking, followed by stages 4, 3, 2, 1, then 6.
Mexico and Taiwan showed similar patterns but slower development - Stage 3 was most common at 16 rather than Stage 5. Rural villages in Turkey and Mexico progressed even more slowly, with Stage 1 still dominating at 16.
Fascinating fact Stage 6 (the highest level of moral reasoning) was rarely found in any culture, and middle-class children consistently showed more advanced moral reasoning than working-class children.
Kohlberg's study has some brilliant strengths but also significant limitations. The longitudinal design provided rich data over 12 years, though many participants dropped out. The cross-cultural element makes results more generalisable, whilst the large sample size ensured reliable findings.
However, the study faces serious validity issues. Using hypothetical dilemmas that don't relate to teenagers' real lives creates low ecological validity - how you say you'd act might differ completely from actual behaviour. Plus, countless extraneous variables like upbringing and socioeconomic status could affect responses.
The sample is problematic - it's entirely male, so we can't generalise to females. Ethical concerns also arise since younger participants couldn't fully consent to a 12-year study.
Critical thinking point The study uses qualitative data, which provides rich subjective analysis but makes comparing results much harder than with numerical data.
Kohlberg's work connects to major psychological debates you'll encounter throughout your studies. On nature vs nurture, his theory suggests both - children seem to progress through innate, predetermined stages (nature), but cultural differences clearly show environmental influence (nurture).
Regarding psychology as a science, Kohlberg claimed his research followed scientific methods. However, the lack of control over extraneous variables and subjective interpretation of responses undermines the objectivity that true science requires.
The free will vs determinism debate is particularly relevant here. Kohlberg suggests moral development stages are invariant and happen in a fairly fixed chronological order, leaving little room for free will in how we progress through these stages.
Exam tip Understanding these debates helps you evaluate any psychological study more effectively - they're not just relevant to Kohlberg but appear across your entire psychology course.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
1
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Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
mia
@miaratcliff
Ever wondered why some people seem to have stronger moral compasses than others? Kohlberg's groundbreaking study on moral development reveals how our sense of right and wrong actually develops in predictable stages as we grow up, and it's not as... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Your moral reasoning isn't fixed - it actually develops through distinct stages as you mature. Kohlberg built on earlier theories from Freud (who focused on repressing selfish desires) and Piaget (who studied how children understand concepts like justice and fairness).
Kohlberg conducted a 12-year longitudinal study following 75 American boys aged 10-16 through to their late twenties. He wanted to prove that moral development happens gradually through six specific stages across three levels.
The boys were given hypothetical moral dilemmas - short stories presenting ethical conflicts they had to solve. For example, 10-year-olds were asked whether it's better to save one important person or lots of "unimportant" people, whilst older participants tackled mercy killing scenarios.
Key insight: Kohlberg also tested boys from Taiwan, Britain, Canada, Mexico and Turkey using similar moral dilemmas to see if moral development was universal across cultures.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The results showed clear progression through moral stages, though at different speeds. Tommy and Richard, two boys Kohlberg tracked closely, demonstrated this perfectly. At 10, Tommy mixed up a person's value with their possessions (Stage 1), whilst Richard progressed from relying on God's authority at 16 (Stage 4) to developing absolute values of justice by 24 (Stage 6).
Cross-cultural patterns emerged consistently. At age 10, Stage 1 reasoning dominated in all countries. By 16, American teenagers had flipped to mostly Stage 5 thinking, followed by stages 4, 3, 2, 1, then 6.
Mexico and Taiwan showed similar patterns but slower development - Stage 3 was most common at 16 rather than Stage 5. Rural villages in Turkey and Mexico progressed even more slowly, with Stage 1 still dominating at 16.
Fascinating fact: Stage 6 (the highest level of moral reasoning) was rarely found in any culture, and middle-class children consistently showed more advanced moral reasoning than working-class children.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Kohlberg's study has some brilliant strengths but also significant limitations. The longitudinal design provided rich data over 12 years, though many participants dropped out. The cross-cultural element makes results more generalisable, whilst the large sample size ensured reliable findings.
However, the study faces serious validity issues. Using hypothetical dilemmas that don't relate to teenagers' real lives creates low ecological validity - how you say you'd act might differ completely from actual behaviour. Plus, countless extraneous variables like upbringing and socioeconomic status could affect responses.
The sample is problematic - it's entirely male, so we can't generalise to females. Ethical concerns also arise since younger participants couldn't fully consent to a 12-year study.
Critical thinking point: The study uses qualitative data, which provides rich subjective analysis but makes comparing results much harder than with numerical data.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Kohlberg's work connects to major psychological debates you'll encounter throughout your studies. On nature vs nurture, his theory suggests both - children seem to progress through innate, predetermined stages (nature), but cultural differences clearly show environmental influence (nurture).
Regarding psychology as a science, Kohlberg claimed his research followed scientific methods. However, the lack of control over extraneous variables and subjective interpretation of responses undermines the objectivity that true science requires.
The free will vs determinism debate is particularly relevant here. Kohlberg suggests moral development stages are invariant and happen in a fairly fixed chronological order, leaving little room for free will in how we progress through these stages.
Exam tip: Understanding these debates helps you evaluate any psychological study more effectively - they're not just relevant to Kohlberg but appear across your entire psychology course.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
1
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Criminology