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Demetra
08/12/2025
Psychology
Cognitive Psychology KO
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8 Dec 2025
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Comprehensive Cognitive Psychology Overview
Demetra
@demetra_21
1 / 10
Baddeley's Classic Study (1966b)
Ever wondered why you can remember song lyrics perfectly but struggle with your shopping list? Baddeley's groundbreaking study helped explain exactly how our long-term memory processes information. He discovered that our brains don't just store memories randomly - there's actually a sophisticated system at work.
Baddeley tested 72 Cambridge volunteers using four different word lists: some with similar sounds (like "cat, bat, hat") and others with similar meanings (like "big, large, huge"). The clever bit was using an interference task - participants had to do mental arithmetic to stop their short-term memory from helping out. This meant he could study long-term memory in isolation.
The results were brilliant: people struggled massively with semantically similar words (remembering only 58% correctly) but had no trouble with acoustically similar ones (85% accuracy). This proved that long-term memory encodes information by meaning rather than sound - which is why mindmaps work so well for revision!
Top Tip: Use semantic links when revising - connect new information to things you already know rather than just repeating facts.
Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil Study (2012)
This modern study tackled something you've probably experienced firsthand - trying to remember phone numbers or sequences of digits. The researchers wanted to understand how our phonological loop (the part of memory that handles sounds and speech) develops as we grow up and whether it differs between languages.
Using 570 Spanish participants aged 5-17, they tested digit span by reading number sequences aloud and asking for recall. The findings were fascinating: 5-year-olds could only manage about 3.76 digits, but this capacity steadily increased through adolescence. Spanish speakers generally showed lower digit spans than English speakers due to the word length effect - longer words take more mental space.
The study also compared healthy elderly participants with dementia patients. Surprisingly, age affected memory capacity more than dementia itself in some cases. This research has practical applications for understanding learning difficulties and helping teachers support students with memory challenges.
Memory Hack: Your digit span improves naturally until at least age 17, so don't worry if memorising feels harder when you're younger - your brain is still developing these skills!
Cognitive Practical Investigation
Sometimes the best way to understand memory is through hands-on investigation. This practical study demonstrates a crucial principle: interference seriously disrupts memory formation. Using just 12 participants, researchers tested whether doing a distracting task affects how well we can remember information.
The setup was elegantly simple: participants saw an 8-digit sequence for 15 seconds, then either rehearsed it quietly (control group) or recited the alphabet backwards (interference group). After 30 seconds, everyone tried to recall the original digits. The results were dramatic - the control group remembered 7.3 digits on average, while the interference group managed only 5.16.
This experiment proves that rehearsal is absolutely vital for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. When rehearsal gets interrupted, information simply decays and disappears. The statistical analysis confirmed these results were significant, not just down to chance.
Study Strategy: Avoid distractions when trying to memorise important information - your brain needs that rehearsal time to properly encode memories.
Memory Fundamentals and Case Studies
Understanding memory starts with grasping some key concepts that'll help everything else make sense. Memory is essentially your brain's filing system - it encodes information (converts it into storable form), stores it, and retrieves it when needed. Think of it like saving, storing, and opening files on your computer.
Two important processing types work together: bottom-up processing builds perception from basic sensory information, while top-down processing uses your existing knowledge to fill gaps. Your brain constantly creates schemas - mental frameworks that help you understand and predict the world around you.
Case studies provide incredible insights into memory through detailed examination of individuals with unusual conditions. The famous case of HM (Henry Molaison) revolutionised memory research after brain surgery left him unable to form new memories. He could remember his childhood but forgot new experiences within 30 seconds, proving that different brain areas handle short-term and long-term memory storage.
Real-World Connection: HM could learn new skills (like playing tennis) but couldn't remember learning them - showing that different types of memory work independently.
The Multi-Store Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model changed how we understand memory by proposing three distinct storage systems working like a factory production line. Information flows sequentially from sensory register to short-term memory to long-term memory - but only if it gets the right processing at each stage.
The sensory register briefly holds incoming information in its original form - visual (iconic) or auditory (echoic). Without attention, this information vanishes immediately. Short-term memory can hold 7±2 chunks of information for about 18 seconds, encoding it acoustically (by sound). Finally, long-term memory offers unlimited capacity and lifetime duration, storing information semantically (by meaning).
Key supporting evidence includes Jacob's digit span studies (showing STM capacity limits) and Peterson & Peterson's trigram experiments . However, the model has limitations - Patient KF could remember visual information but not sounds after brain damage, suggesting STM isn't a single unified store.
Exam Insight: Remember the serial position effect - you recall items from the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of lists better than middle items.
Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch realised that short-term memory was far more complex than a simple storage box. Their Working Memory Model revolutionised our understanding by proposing multiple specialised systems working together under the control of a central supervisor.
The central executive acts like a mental manager, coordinating everything and making decisions. It has limited capacity but controls two crucial "slave systems." The phonological loop handles speech-based information through a phonological store (holding sounds briefly) and articulatory control system (enabling silent rehearsal). Meanwhile, the visuo-spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information, helping you visualise shapes and navigate spaces.
Added later, the episodic buffer integrates information from all systems and connects working memory with long-term storage. This model explains why you can hold a conversation while driving (using different systems) but struggle to listen to two conversations simultaneously (competing for the same system).
Practical Application: Understanding working memory explains why some revision techniques work better - vary your methods to use different memory systems effectively.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Comprehensive Cognitive Psychology Overview
Demetra
@demetra_21
Memory is one of the most fascinating aspects of psychology, and understanding how it works can genuinely improve your revision techniques and help explain why sometimes you forget things at the worst possible moments. This knowledge organiser covers the key... Show more
Baddeley's Classic Study (1966b)
Ever wondered why you can remember song lyrics perfectly but struggle with your shopping list? Baddeley's groundbreaking study helped explain exactly how our long-term memory processes information. He discovered that our brains don't just store memories randomly - there's actually a sophisticated system at work.
Baddeley tested 72 Cambridge volunteers using four different word lists: some with similar sounds (like "cat, bat, hat") and others with similar meanings (like "big, large, huge"). The clever bit was using an interference task - participants had to do mental arithmetic to stop their short-term memory from helping out. This meant he could study long-term memory in isolation.
The results were brilliant: people struggled massively with semantically similar words (remembering only 58% correctly) but had no trouble with acoustically similar ones (85% accuracy). This proved that long-term memory encodes information by meaning rather than sound - which is why mindmaps work so well for revision!
Top Tip: Use semantic links when revising - connect new information to things you already know rather than just repeating facts.
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Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil Study (2012)
This modern study tackled something you've probably experienced firsthand - trying to remember phone numbers or sequences of digits. The researchers wanted to understand how our phonological loop (the part of memory that handles sounds and speech) develops as we grow up and whether it differs between languages.
Using 570 Spanish participants aged 5-17, they tested digit span by reading number sequences aloud and asking for recall. The findings were fascinating: 5-year-olds could only manage about 3.76 digits, but this capacity steadily increased through adolescence. Spanish speakers generally showed lower digit spans than English speakers due to the word length effect - longer words take more mental space.
The study also compared healthy elderly participants with dementia patients. Surprisingly, age affected memory capacity more than dementia itself in some cases. This research has practical applications for understanding learning difficulties and helping teachers support students with memory challenges.
Memory Hack: Your digit span improves naturally until at least age 17, so don't worry if memorising feels harder when you're younger - your brain is still developing these skills!
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Cognitive Practical Investigation
Sometimes the best way to understand memory is through hands-on investigation. This practical study demonstrates a crucial principle: interference seriously disrupts memory formation. Using just 12 participants, researchers tested whether doing a distracting task affects how well we can remember information.
The setup was elegantly simple: participants saw an 8-digit sequence for 15 seconds, then either rehearsed it quietly (control group) or recited the alphabet backwards (interference group). After 30 seconds, everyone tried to recall the original digits. The results were dramatic - the control group remembered 7.3 digits on average, while the interference group managed only 5.16.
This experiment proves that rehearsal is absolutely vital for transferring information from short-term to long-term memory. When rehearsal gets interrupted, information simply decays and disappears. The statistical analysis confirmed these results were significant, not just down to chance.
Study Strategy: Avoid distractions when trying to memorise important information - your brain needs that rehearsal time to properly encode memories.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
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Memory Fundamentals and Case Studies
Understanding memory starts with grasping some key concepts that'll help everything else make sense. Memory is essentially your brain's filing system - it encodes information (converts it into storable form), stores it, and retrieves it when needed. Think of it like saving, storing, and opening files on your computer.
Two important processing types work together: bottom-up processing builds perception from basic sensory information, while top-down processing uses your existing knowledge to fill gaps. Your brain constantly creates schemas - mental frameworks that help you understand and predict the world around you.
Case studies provide incredible insights into memory through detailed examination of individuals with unusual conditions. The famous case of HM (Henry Molaison) revolutionised memory research after brain surgery left him unable to form new memories. He could remember his childhood but forgot new experiences within 30 seconds, proving that different brain areas handle short-term and long-term memory storage.
Real-World Connection: HM could learn new skills (like playing tennis) but couldn't remember learning them - showing that different types of memory work independently.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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Improve your grades
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The Multi-Store Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model changed how we understand memory by proposing three distinct storage systems working like a factory production line. Information flows sequentially from sensory register to short-term memory to long-term memory - but only if it gets the right processing at each stage.
The sensory register briefly holds incoming information in its original form - visual (iconic) or auditory (echoic). Without attention, this information vanishes immediately. Short-term memory can hold 7±2 chunks of information for about 18 seconds, encoding it acoustically (by sound). Finally, long-term memory offers unlimited capacity and lifetime duration, storing information semantically (by meaning).
Key supporting evidence includes Jacob's digit span studies (showing STM capacity limits) and Peterson & Peterson's trigram experiments . However, the model has limitations - Patient KF could remember visual information but not sounds after brain damage, suggesting STM isn't a single unified store.
Exam Insight: Remember the serial position effect - you recall items from the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of lists better than middle items.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Working Memory Model
Baddeley and Hitch realised that short-term memory was far more complex than a simple storage box. Their Working Memory Model revolutionised our understanding by proposing multiple specialised systems working together under the control of a central supervisor.
The central executive acts like a mental manager, coordinating everything and making decisions. It has limited capacity but controls two crucial "slave systems." The phonological loop handles speech-based information through a phonological store (holding sounds briefly) and articulatory control system (enabling silent rehearsal). Meanwhile, the visuo-spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information, helping you visualise shapes and navigate spaces.
Added later, the episodic buffer integrates information from all systems and connects working memory with long-term storage. This model explains why you can hold a conversation while driving (using different systems) but struggle to listen to two conversations simultaneously (competing for the same system).
Practical Application: Understanding working memory explains why some revision techniques work better - vary your methods to use different memory systems effectively.
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
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Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
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By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
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Join milions of students
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We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Most popular content: Short-term Memory (stm)
Most popular content in Psychology
Most popular content
English - inspector calls quotes and analysis
Quotes from every main character
English Literature10
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user