Maths
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Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
Show all topics
Psychology
15 Dec 2025
53
20 pages
jem๐ @jemelia
Ever wondered how psychologists actually conduct their research? From controlled lab experiments to sneaky observations in natural settings,... Show more
Think of lab experiments as the controlled environment approach to psychology research. Researchers create artificial settings where they can manipulate one variable (the independent variable) whilst keeping everything else exactly the same.
The beauty of lab experiments lies in their high internal validity - you can be confident that any changes you observe are actually caused by what you're testing. They're also brilliant for replication since everything follows standardised procedures.
However, there's a major downside low ecological validity. The artificial lab setting doesn't reflect real-world behaviour, and participants might act differently because they know they're being studied (demand characteristics).
Quick Tip Lab experiments = high control but low real-world relevance. Perfect for establishing cause and effect, but question whether findings apply to everyday life.
Field experiments take research into the real world whilst still allowing researchers to manipulate variables. It's like having the best of both worlds - natural settings with scientific control.
These studies shine with higher ecological validity and mundane realism because participants behave more naturally in familiar environments. You'll also see fewer demand characteristics since people aren't stuck in an artificial lab.
The trade-off? Extraneous variables become much harder to control. You can't randomly assign participants to different conditions as easily, which means participant variables might influence your results rather than your actual manipulation.
Remember Field experiments sacrifice some control for real-world relevance - great for studying behaviour as it naturally occurs.
Natural experiments study variables that occur naturally without any researcher interference. Think major life events, natural disasters, or policy changes that create different conditions for people to experience.
These are goldmines for studying situations that would be unethical or impossible to create artificially. You get high external validity because you're observing genuine behaviour and real consequences.
Quasi experiments focus on pre-existing characteristics like age, gender, or personality traits. Since you can't randomly assign someone to be introverted or extroverted, you work with what's already there. The challenge is that confounding variables like education or upbringing might influence results alongside your variable of interest.
Key Point Both types study what naturally exists rather than what researchers create - perfect for ethical research but harder to establish clear cause and effect.
Observations let researchers watch behaviour unfold naturally. Overt observation means participants know they're being watched, which is ethical but might lead to social desirability bias - people acting how they think they should rather than naturally.
Covert observation involves secret watching, eliminating artificial behaviour but raising serious ethical concerns about consent and privacy.
Participant observation takes it further - researchers actually join the group they're studying. This builds rapport and insider understanding but risks losing objectivity. Researchers use time sampling (recording at set intervals) or event sampling (recording when specific behaviours occur) to collect systematic data.
Balance Alert Choose between ethical transparency and natural behaviour - both have valid research applications depending on your study goals.
Every good study starts with a prediction. The null hypothesis basically says "nothing interesting will happen" - there's no difference or change due to your manipulation.
The alternative hypothesis is your actual prediction that something will change. You can make this directional (predicting which way results will go) if previous research gives you confidence, or non-directional (just predicting a difference) when you're less certain.
Directional hypotheses are only appropriate when existing research strongly suggests a particular outcome. Otherwise, stick with non-directional to avoid bias.
Research Tip Your hypothesis should be testable and specific - vague predictions lead to messy conclusions that don't advance scientific knowledge.
Random sampling gives every person in your target population an equal mathematical chance of being selected. Create a list of everyone, put names in a hat (or computer database), and randomly draw your required sample size.
This method brilliantly avoids researcher bias since you can't consciously or unconsciously pick people who might support your hypothesis.
The downside? You might still end up with an unrepresentative sample by pure chance, and the process can be incredibly time-consuming for large populations.
Practical Note True random sampling sounds simple but requires complete population lists and significant time investment - often impractical for student research projects.
Before any research gets published, experts in the same field scrutinise every detail through peer review. Scientists submit papers to academic journals, where independent experts evaluate the methodology, analysis, and conclusions.
Reviewers check whether the research design actually tests what it claims to, if the data analysis is appropriate, and whether conclusions are supported by results. They then recommend acceptance, rejection, or suggest improvements.
This process acts as quality control, ensuring only reliable research reaches the public and influences future studies. Peer-reviewed articles are considered the gold standard for academic credibility.
Academic Reality Peer review maintains scientific standards but can be slow and sometimes biased - it's not perfect but remains our best quality control system.
Peer review helps self-regulate scientific quality and maintains public trust in research. It prevents flawed studies from influencing policy or treatment decisions, and peer-reviewed publications help researchers secure future funding.
However, the system has flaws. Finding suitable experts for highly specialised or emerging research areas can be challenging. Professional rivalry sometimes influences reviews, and established researchers might resist challenges to accepted theories.
Publication bias is particularly problematic - journals prefer publishing positive results over negative findings, potentially skewing our understanding of what actually works.
Critical Thinking Peer review improves research quality but isn't foolproof - always consider potential biases and limitations even in published studies.
Content analysis studies human behaviour indirectly by examining visual artefacts like media, documents, or communications. Start with a clear research question, then select a representative sample from your data pool.
The key step is coding - creating specific, measurable categories for analysis. Work through your data systematically, then analyse patterns quantitatively to draw conclusions.
Reliability is crucial test-retest reliability means getting consistent results when repeating the analysis, whilst inter-rater reliability ensures different researchers code the same material similarly.
Research Strength Content analysis reveals patterns in existing materials without influencing behaviour - perfect for studying historical trends or media representation.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help โ all at your fingertips.
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Transform this note into: โ 50+ Practice Questions โ Interactive Flashcards โ Full Mock Exam โ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because itโs too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didnโt even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as Iโm sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH ๐๐๐ฒ๐ค๐โจ๐๐ฎ
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because itโs too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didnโt even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as Iโm sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH ๐๐๐ฒ๐ค๐โจ๐๐ฎ
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
jem๐
@jemelia
Ever wondered how psychologists actually conduct their research? From controlled lab experiments to sneaky observations in natural settings, researchers use different methods to uncover how the human mind works. Let's explore the key research techniques that form the backbone of... Show more
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Think of lab experiments as the controlled environment approach to psychology research. Researchers create artificial settings where they can manipulate one variable (the independent variable) whilst keeping everything else exactly the same.
The beauty of lab experiments lies in their high internal validity - you can be confident that any changes you observe are actually caused by what you're testing. They're also brilliant for replication since everything follows standardised procedures.
However, there's a major downside: low ecological validity. The artificial lab setting doesn't reflect real-world behaviour, and participants might act differently because they know they're being studied (demand characteristics).
Quick Tip: Lab experiments = high control but low real-world relevance. Perfect for establishing cause and effect, but question whether findings apply to everyday life.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Field experiments take research into the real world whilst still allowing researchers to manipulate variables. It's like having the best of both worlds - natural settings with scientific control.
These studies shine with higher ecological validity and mundane realism because participants behave more naturally in familiar environments. You'll also see fewer demand characteristics since people aren't stuck in an artificial lab.
The trade-off? Extraneous variables become much harder to control. You can't randomly assign participants to different conditions as easily, which means participant variables might influence your results rather than your actual manipulation.
Remember: Field experiments sacrifice some control for real-world relevance - great for studying behaviour as it naturally occurs.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Natural experiments study variables that occur naturally without any researcher interference. Think major life events, natural disasters, or policy changes that create different conditions for people to experience.
These are goldmines for studying situations that would be unethical or impossible to create artificially. You get high external validity because you're observing genuine behaviour and real consequences.
Quasi experiments focus on pre-existing characteristics like age, gender, or personality traits. Since you can't randomly assign someone to be introverted or extroverted, you work with what's already there. The challenge is that confounding variables like education or upbringing might influence results alongside your variable of interest.
Key Point: Both types study what naturally exists rather than what researchers create - perfect for ethical research but harder to establish clear cause and effect.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Observations let researchers watch behaviour unfold naturally. Overt observation means participants know they're being watched, which is ethical but might lead to social desirability bias - people acting how they think they should rather than naturally.
Covert observation involves secret watching, eliminating artificial behaviour but raising serious ethical concerns about consent and privacy.
Participant observation takes it further - researchers actually join the group they're studying. This builds rapport and insider understanding but risks losing objectivity. Researchers use time sampling (recording at set intervals) or event sampling (recording when specific behaviours occur) to collect systematic data.
Balance Alert: Choose between ethical transparency and natural behaviour - both have valid research applications depending on your study goals.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Every good study starts with a prediction. The null hypothesis basically says "nothing interesting will happen" - there's no difference or change due to your manipulation.
The alternative hypothesis is your actual prediction that something will change. You can make this directional (predicting which way results will go) if previous research gives you confidence, or non-directional (just predicting a difference) when you're less certain.
Directional hypotheses are only appropriate when existing research strongly suggests a particular outcome. Otherwise, stick with non-directional to avoid bias.
Research Tip: Your hypothesis should be testable and specific - vague predictions lead to messy conclusions that don't advance scientific knowledge.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Random sampling gives every person in your target population an equal mathematical chance of being selected. Create a list of everyone, put names in a hat (or computer database), and randomly draw your required sample size.
This method brilliantly avoids researcher bias since you can't consciously or unconsciously pick people who might support your hypothesis.
The downside? You might still end up with an unrepresentative sample by pure chance, and the process can be incredibly time-consuming for large populations.
Practical Note: True random sampling sounds simple but requires complete population lists and significant time investment - often impractical for student research projects.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Before any research gets published, experts in the same field scrutinise every detail through peer review. Scientists submit papers to academic journals, where independent experts evaluate the methodology, analysis, and conclusions.
Reviewers check whether the research design actually tests what it claims to, if the data analysis is appropriate, and whether conclusions are supported by results. They then recommend acceptance, rejection, or suggest improvements.
This process acts as quality control, ensuring only reliable research reaches the public and influences future studies. Peer-reviewed articles are considered the gold standard for academic credibility.
Academic Reality: Peer review maintains scientific standards but can be slow and sometimes biased - it's not perfect but remains our best quality control system.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Peer review helps self-regulate scientific quality and maintains public trust in research. It prevents flawed studies from influencing policy or treatment decisions, and peer-reviewed publications help researchers secure future funding.
However, the system has flaws. Finding suitable experts for highly specialised or emerging research areas can be challenging. Professional rivalry sometimes influences reviews, and established researchers might resist challenges to accepted theories.
Publication bias is particularly problematic - journals prefer publishing positive results over negative findings, potentially skewing our understanding of what actually works.
Critical Thinking: Peer review improves research quality but isn't foolproof - always consider potential biases and limitations even in published studies.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Content analysis studies human behaviour indirectly by examining visual artefacts like media, documents, or communications. Start with a clear research question, then select a representative sample from your data pool.
The key step is coding - creating specific, measurable categories for analysis. Work through your data systematically, then analyse patterns quantitatively to draw conclusions.
Reliability is crucial: test-retest reliability means getting consistent results when repeating the analysis, whilst inter-rater reliability ensures different researchers code the same material similarly.
Research Strength: Content analysis reveals patterns in existing materials without influencing behaviour - perfect for studying historical trends or media representation.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help โ all at your fingertips.
0
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: โ 50+ Practice Questions โ Interactive Flashcards โ Full Mock Exam โ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because itโs too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didnโt even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as Iโm sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH ๐๐๐ฒ๐ค๐โจ๐๐ฎ
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because itโs too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didnโt even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as Iโm sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH ๐๐๐ฒ๐ค๐โจ๐๐ฎ
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology