Tzvetan Todorov, a Bulgarian-French literary theorist, proposed a model for understanding the structure of narratives. His theory suggests that all stories follow a similar pattern, which can be broken down into five distinct stages.

Definition: Todorov narrative theory is a framework that outlines the typical progression of a story through five stages.

The five stages of Todorov's narrative theory are:

1. Equilibrium: The setting is established, key characters are introduced, and the initial storyline is set up.

2. Disruption: Oppositional characters appear, and the story takes a particular direction, disturbing the initial balance.

3. Recognition of disruption: The lives of characters become interwoven, and tension builds throughout this section.

4. Attempt to repair disruption: This stage represents the highest point of tension, after which there is a change in dynamic.

5. Reinstatement of equilibrium: Matters are sorted out, problems are solved, and questions are answered, bringing the story back to a state of balance.

Highlight: Understanding Todorov narrative theory equilibrium is crucial for analyzing how stories create and resolve tension, making it a valuable tool for Eduqas Media Studies A Level students.

Example: In a typical romantic comedy, the equilibrium might be the main characters' single lives, the disruption could be their meeting and initial conflicts, recognition would involve acknowledging their feelings, attempts to repair might include overcoming obstacles to be together, and the new equilibrium would be their relationship at the end of the film.

Claude Lévi-Strauss, a French anthropologist and ethnologist, introduced the concept of binary opposition in the 1960s as a way to understand how we make sense of narratives and cultural phenomena.

Definition: Levi-Strauss narrative theory suggests that we understand narratives through pairs of opposing concepts or themes.

Key points of Lévi-Strauss' theory:

1. Binary oppositions are fundamental to human thought and storytelling.
2. These oppositions help structure narratives and create meaning.
3. Common binary oppositions include good vs. evil, order vs. chaos, nature vs. culture, and male vs. female.

Example: In many superhero stories, we see clear binary oppositions:

• Good (superhero) vs. Evil (villain)
• Order (law enforcement) vs. Chaos (criminal activities)
• Public identity vs. Secret identity

Highlight: Understanding binary oppositions is crucial for Eduqas Media Studies A Level students as it provides a framework for analyzing the underlying structures and themes in media texts.

Vocabulary: Binary opposition - a pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning.

This theory is particularly useful in Eduqas Media Studies GCSE and A Level courses for analyzing how media texts create meaning and engage audiences through contrasting ideas and characters.

Richard Dyer, a British academic specializing in film studies, developed a comprehensive theory about the nature and function of stardom in media and society.

Definition: Richard Dyer's Star Theory examines how celebrities are constructed as media phenomena and how they appeal to audiences.

Key aspects of Dyer's Star Theory:

1. Stars as brands: True stars have lasting importance and are constructed to generate profit.
2. Hidden reality: The true person behind the star is often kept hidden from public appearances.
3. Cross-media presence: A star's identity and persona extend beyond their primary area of fame.
4. Recognizability: Stars are easily recognizable but maintain a balance between being ordinary and extraordinary.
5. Availability paradox: Stars must seem both available to their fans yet ultimately unattainable.

Example: Consider a Hollywood actor like Tom Cruise:

• His name is a brand that sells movies
• His public persona is carefully managed
• He appears in films, interviews, and endorsements
• He's recognizable worldwide but maintains an air of mystery
• Fans feel close to him through media, but he remains personally inaccessible

Highlight: For Eduqas Media Studies A Level students, understanding Dyer's theory is crucial for analyzing the construction and impact of celebrity culture in various media forms.

Vocabulary: Persona - the aspect of someone's character that is presented to or perceived by others.

This theory is particularly relevant for studying celebrity culture, advertising, and the impact of social media on stardom in contemporary media landscapes.

Laura Mulvey, a feminist film theorist, introduced the concept of the male gaze in her 1975 essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." This theory has become a cornerstone in feminist media criticism and is crucial for understanding gender representation in media.

Definition: Laura Mulvey's Male Gaze theory argues that the visual arts and literature depict the world and women from a masculine point of view, presenting women as objects of male pleasure.

Key aspects of Mulvey's Male Gaze theory:

1. Camera perspective: The camera typically adopts the viewpoint of a heterosexual male.
2. Objectification: Women are often sexualized, even in non-sexual situations.
3. Visual focus: The camera lingers on female body parts such as legs, hips, breasts, and mouth.
4. Passive representation: Women are portrayed as passive objects rather than active subjects.
5. Power dynamics: Male power over women is reinforced through visual representation.

Example: In many action films, female characters might be introduced with slow-motion shots focusing on their physical attributes, while male characters are introduced through their actions or dialogue.

Highlight: Understanding the male gaze is crucial for Eduqas Media Studies A Level students to critically analyze gender representation in various media forms, from film and television to advertising and social media.

Vocabulary: Objectification - the action of degrading someone to the status of a mere object.

This theory is particularly relevant for studying gender representation, power dynamics in media, and the evolution of feminist criticism in film and other media forms.

Elihu Katz, along with Jay Blumler and Michael Gurevitch, developed the Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 1970s. This theory focuses on why and how people actively seek out specific media to satisfy particular needs.

Definition: Elihu Katz's Uses & Gratifications Theory proposes that audiences actively use media to fulfill specific needs or obtain gratifications.

The theory identifies five key needs that media fulfills for audiences:

1. Information and Education: The need to learn about the world around them.
2. Personal Identity: The need to identify with characters and situations to learn about themselves.
3. Entertainment: The need for enjoyment and diversion through well-constructed texts.
4. Social Interaction: The need for media as a basis for conversation and social engagement.
5. Escape: The need to temporarily forget about daily problems and immerse in other worlds.

Example: A person might watch a documentary to learn about a historical event (Information), a reality show to compare their life to others (Personal Identity), a comedy for laughs (Entertainment), a popular series to discuss with friends (Social Interaction), or a fantasy film to escape from reality (Escape).

Highlight: For Eduqas Media Studies GCSE and A Level students, this theory is crucial for understanding audience motivations and how media producers cater to these needs.

Vocabulary: Gratification - pleasure or satisfaction derived from something.

This theory is particularly useful in analyzing audience behavior, media consumption patterns, and the effectiveness of different media formats in satisfying audience needs.

Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge conducted a seminal study in 1965 that examined how events become news. Their research led to the development of a set of criteria known as news values or gatekeeping criteria.

Definition: Galtung and Ruge's Gatekeeping theory identifies criteria that influence whether events are likely to be reported as news.

The key news values identified by Galtung and Ruge include:

1. Frequency or Timescale: Events that unfold quickly are more likely to be reported.
2. Threshold or Size: Events must be significant enough to be newsworthy.
3. Unambiguity or Simplicity: Clear, easily understood events are more likely to be reported.
4. Relevance: Events must be meaningful to the audience.
5. Unexpectedness or Surprise Factor: Unusual or rare events are more newsworthy.
6. Continuity: Ongoing stories are more likely to be covered.
7. Elite Nations and Elite Persons: Stories involving powerful countries or famous people are favored.
8. Personalisation: Events can be discussed in terms of individual people.
9. Negativity: Bad news is often considered more newsworthy than good news.
10. Predictability: Events that are anticipated are more likely to be covered.

Example: A major political scandal involving a well-known figure would likely meet several of these criteria: it's significant (Threshold), involves an elite person, can be personalized, may be unexpected, and often has negative connotations.

Highlight: Understanding these news values is crucial for Eduqas Media Studies A Level students analyzing media production, particularly in journalism and news media.

Vocabulary: Gatekeeping - the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting, or some other mode of communication.

This theory is particularly relevant for studying news production, media bias, and the factors that influence what stories are deemed newsworthy in different contexts.

This section examines news selection criteria developed in 1963.

Definition: Gatekeeping theory explains how news organizations select which stories to publish.

Example: News values include frequency, threshold, unambiguity, relevance, unexpectedness, continuity, elite status, personalization, and negativity.

Vladimir Propp, a Russian scholar, analyzed the basic plot components of Russian folk tales to identify their narrative elements. His research led to the conclusion that all characters in narratives can be categorized into seven distinct types.

Definition: Vladimir Propp's character theory is a framework that identifies seven recurring character types in narratives.

The seven character types identified by Propp are:

1. The hero
2. The villain
3. The princess
4. The donor
5. The helper
6. The princess' father
7. The false hero

Example: In the context of Star Wars, we can identify these character types:

• Luke Skywalker as the hero
• Darth Vader as the villain
• Princess Leia as the princess
• Obi-Wan Kenobi as the donor and helper
• Han Solo as another helper

Highlight: Understanding Propp's 8 character types (including the dispatcher, which is sometimes added to the original seven) can be valuable for analyzing narrative structures in various media texts, from classic literature to modern films and TV shows.