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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
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4
0
Mia Giles
14/12/2025
Maths
OCR A Physics A-Level Module 2: Foundations of Physics Overview
207
•
14 Dec 2025
•
Mia Giles
@miakrg
Physics isn't just about memorising formulas—it's about understanding measurements, handling... Show more
Ever wondered why we use "kilo" in kilogram or "mega" in megabyte? Unit prefixes are shortcuts that make huge or tiny numbers manageable. From tera (10¹²) down to pico (10⁻¹²), these prefixes help physicists communicate measurements clearly.
When creating graphs, you're basically telling a visual story with your data. The independent variable (what you control) goes on the x-axis, whilst the dependent variable (what you measure) sits on the y-axis. Your graph should fill at least 75% of the available space—nobody wants to squint at a tiny plot in the corner!
Top tip: When calculating gradients, draw your triangle across at least 75% of the straight line. This reduces the impact of small measurement errors and gives you a more reliable result.
Remember to label your axes properly with both the quantity and unit , and always use a line of best fit rather than connecting every single point.
Every measurement you take in physics has some level of uncertainty—and that's perfectly normal! The key difference lies between random errors (which vary unpredictably) and systematic errors (which consistently shift your results in one direction).
Random errors pop up because of environmental factors or difficulty reading instruments. You can't eliminate them completely, but taking multiple measurements and calculating the mean helps reduce their impact. Systematic errors, however, come from faulty equipment or poor technique—these you can actually fix.
Accuracy tells you how close you are to the true value, whilst precision shows how consistent your repeated measurements are. Think of it like darts: accurate throws cluster around the bullseye, precise throws cluster together (but might miss the target entirely).
Remember: After discarding outliers, your absolute uncertainty is ± (range of measurements ÷ 2). If you've only got one measurement, use the resolution of your measuring equipment instead.
Percentage uncertainty helps you compare the reliability of different measurements: just divide absolute uncertainty by the actual value, then multiply by 100.
When you're combining measurements in calculations, uncertainties don't just disappear—they follow specific rules. Add absolute uncertainties when you're adding or subtracting quantities. Add percentage uncertainties when multiplying or dividing. If you're raising something to a power, multiply the percentage uncertainty by that power.
Dealing with error bars on graphs might seem fiddly, but they're crucial for honest data analysis. Your line of best fit must pass within all error bars, with roughly equal numbers of data points on either side. Ignore any anomalous data—those weird results that clearly don't fit the pattern.
To find uncertainty in your gradient, draw the line of worst fit—either the shallowest or steepest line that still passes through all error bars. The difference between your best and worst gradients gives you the absolute uncertainty.
Pro tip: The line of worst fit is your reality check. It shows the range of possible gradients your data could reasonably support, making your conclusions more robust.
Not all quantities are created equal in physics. Scalar quantities have magnitude but no direction—like temperature or speed. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction—like velocity or force. This distinction matters because vectors follow special rules for addition and subtraction.
Adding parallel vectors is straightforward: same direction means simple addition, opposite directions mean subtraction. But when vectors meet at angles, you need a vector triangle. Start by drawing the first vector to scale, then draw the second vector with its tail touching the first vector's head.
The resultant vector runs from the tail of your first vector to the head of your second vector. For precise calculations, use the cosine rule: a² = b² + c² - 2bc cos A. This mathematical approach gives you exact values rather than relying on careful drawing and measuring.
Key insight: Vector addition isn't just mathematical—it represents real physical situations, like combining forces or calculating displacement when you change direction during a journey.
Whether you're analysing forces on a bridge or calculating the path of a projectile, understanding vector addition gives you the tools to solve complex real-world problems.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Mia Giles
@miakrg
Physics isn't just about memorising formulas—it's about understanding measurements, handling data properly, and working with physical quantities. This foundation module covers the essential skills you'll use throughout your A-level course, from reading graphs accurately to dealing with experimental uncertainties.
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Ever wondered why we use "kilo" in kilogram or "mega" in megabyte? Unit prefixes are shortcuts that make huge or tiny numbers manageable. From tera (10¹²) down to pico (10⁻¹²), these prefixes help physicists communicate measurements clearly.
When creating graphs, you're basically telling a visual story with your data. The independent variable (what you control) goes on the x-axis, whilst the dependent variable (what you measure) sits on the y-axis. Your graph should fill at least 75% of the available space—nobody wants to squint at a tiny plot in the corner!
Top tip: When calculating gradients, draw your triangle across at least 75% of the straight line. This reduces the impact of small measurement errors and gives you a more reliable result.
Remember to label your axes properly with both the quantity and unit , and always use a line of best fit rather than connecting every single point.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Every measurement you take in physics has some level of uncertainty—and that's perfectly normal! The key difference lies between random errors (which vary unpredictably) and systematic errors (which consistently shift your results in one direction).
Random errors pop up because of environmental factors or difficulty reading instruments. You can't eliminate them completely, but taking multiple measurements and calculating the mean helps reduce their impact. Systematic errors, however, come from faulty equipment or poor technique—these you can actually fix.
Accuracy tells you how close you are to the true value, whilst precision shows how consistent your repeated measurements are. Think of it like darts: accurate throws cluster around the bullseye, precise throws cluster together (but might miss the target entirely).
Remember: After discarding outliers, your absolute uncertainty is ± (range of measurements ÷ 2). If you've only got one measurement, use the resolution of your measuring equipment instead.
Percentage uncertainty helps you compare the reliability of different measurements: just divide absolute uncertainty by the actual value, then multiply by 100.
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
When you're combining measurements in calculations, uncertainties don't just disappear—they follow specific rules. Add absolute uncertainties when you're adding or subtracting quantities. Add percentage uncertainties when multiplying or dividing. If you're raising something to a power, multiply the percentage uncertainty by that power.
Dealing with error bars on graphs might seem fiddly, but they're crucial for honest data analysis. Your line of best fit must pass within all error bars, with roughly equal numbers of data points on either side. Ignore any anomalous data—those weird results that clearly don't fit the pattern.
To find uncertainty in your gradient, draw the line of worst fit—either the shallowest or steepest line that still passes through all error bars. The difference between your best and worst gradients gives you the absolute uncertainty.
Pro tip: The line of worst fit is your reality check. It shows the range of possible gradients your data could reasonably support, making your conclusions more robust.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Not all quantities are created equal in physics. Scalar quantities have magnitude but no direction—like temperature or speed. Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction—like velocity or force. This distinction matters because vectors follow special rules for addition and subtraction.
Adding parallel vectors is straightforward: same direction means simple addition, opposite directions mean subtraction. But when vectors meet at angles, you need a vector triangle. Start by drawing the first vector to scale, then draw the second vector with its tail touching the first vector's head.
The resultant vector runs from the tail of your first vector to the head of your second vector. For precise calculations, use the cosine rule: a² = b² + c² - 2bc cos A. This mathematical approach gives you exact values rather than relying on careful drawing and measuring.
Key insight: Vector addition isn't just mathematical—it represents real physical situations, like combining forces or calculating displacement when you change direction during a journey.
Whether you're analysing forces on a bridge or calculating the path of a projectile, understanding vector addition gives you the tools to solve complex real-world problems.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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English LiteratureApp Store
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology