PAPER 1; SECTION A — AA AMERICA 1840-1895: expansion and consolidation

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the Great Plains. • The weather on the Plains was extreme, with cold winters and hot summers. There were also frequently very strong winds. • The Plains was also very dry and there was a lack of wood that could be used for building. AMERICAN ATTITUDES TO THE GREAT PLAINS CHANGED IN THE 1840S Attitudes to the west changed from the 1840s as Americans increasingly saw it as their manifest destiny to control the continent from coast to coast. • Because of these conditions, the Great Plains was dismissed by most • Americans as the Great American Desert. • However, some Americans did travel to the West. California There was trade between the United States and California (which was owned by Mexico). Texas Other Americans settled in Texas which was also a Mexican state. Rocky Mountains In the 1820s and 1830s the Plains were crossed by Mountain Men who travelled to the Rocky Mountains to catch beavers and sell their fur in the East. • In 1845 the United States took over Texas, causing the Mexican-American War. • When the USA won this war in 1848 it gained a huge area of land including California and the land which would become Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah and New Mexico. • This led to a developing interest in settling the West. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation THE IDEA OF MANIFEST DESTINY BECAME INCREASINGLY POPULAR • The opening of the Oregon Trail (a route across the Plains and Rocky Mountains leading to Oregon) led to more Americans settling in the West. • Some Americans began to accept the idea that the United States should occupy the whole continent from coast to coast. For many, this was also a religious idea. They believed that it was God's will that they spread Christianity and democracy. • This idea came to be known as Manifest Destiny. It was first used by a journalist called John L. Sullivan. Some Americans also believed this was right due to the view that the Native Americans who occupied the Plains were savages. • Many even considered it right for the USA to go to war to control the West. • A war with Britain was narrowly avoided and a treaty gave the USA control of Oregon in 1846. ● 1. WHY WAS LIVING ON THE PLAINS DIFFICULT? 2. WHY DID ATTITUDES TO THE WEST CHANGE IN THE 1840S? 3. WHAT WAS MANIFEST DESTINY? 1.2 Early settlers in the west PIONEER FARMERS BEGAN TO MOVE WEST IN THE 1840S Religious and economic reasons encouraged a number of settlers to move west in the 1840s, but they still faced huge difficulties in making the journey. • The opening of the Oregon Trail and the Mountain Men meant that stories reached the East of fertile (easy to farm) land in the West. • There was an economic depression (an economic crisis which leads to a fall in the value of goods) in 1837. This led to unemployment and the loss of savings. • Many families looked to move west across the Plains for the promise of free • land and to escape the economic effects of the depression. • This journey was incredibly tough and covered around 1,000 miles, taking around four months. • Many died from accidents, starvation when trapped in the mountains, or the spread of disease. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation THE MORMONS FACED PERSECUTION IN THE EAST • The Mormons were a religious group founded by Joseph Smith. They believed they were God's chosen people. Opposition and persecution drove them steadily further west. ● Ohio In Kirtland, Ohio, the Mormons set up important businesses and a successful mill, bank and printing press. However, in the 1837 depression the bank collapsed. Many blamed the Mormons for the loss of their money. Missouri The Mormons were then forced to Missouri. attacked for their Here they were anti-slavery beliefs Nauvoo In Nauvoo, their leader Joseph Smith announced the Mormon belief in polygamy (that Mormon men should have many wives). Many Americans thought this was blasphemy (offensive to God). Joseph Smith was shot by a mob. Brigham Young became the new leader of the Mormons. JOSEPH SMITH LED THE MORMONS TO THE GREAT SALT LAKE • In 1846, Brigham Young led 16,000 Mormons west to the isolated area around the Great Salt Lake. • This area was under the control of Mexico until 1848, which meant that American laws did not apply. ● • The Mormon journey was well-organised: they set up Winter Quarters to allow them to shelter over the winter. • They also had rest and repair camps along the way and they crossed in wagon trains of 100 wagons. To make a success of the dry and barren area around Salt Lake, the Mormons developed an irrigation system to water crops. • They also established a Perpetual Emigrating Fund to encourage Mormons to migrate from Europe to Utah. By the time Young died, there were 140,000 Mormons in Utah. TIP The examiners want you to use relevant and detailed knowledge in your answers. In your revision, you should try to remember a specific piece of information associated with each general idea. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA IN 1948 ENCOURAGED THOUSANDS TO MOVE WEST • News of the discovery was published in a newspaper and spread rapidly. Many local people rushed to the area hoping to get rich by finding gold. By 1849, miners were coming from all over the world. By 1852, the population of California had increased from 15,000 to 250,000. This movement was called the Gold Rush. • It soon became clear that there were not enough good claims (mining areas to make everyone rich, leading to serious tensions in the mining towns. • There were no organised forces of law and order to prevent violence. ● Racial tensions also boiled over, particularly against Chinese miners who were discriminated against by high taxes. There was also serious violence against Mexicans. By 1852, the California Gold Rush was over. 1. WHY DID PIONEER FARMERS MOVE WEST? 2. WHY DID THE MORMONS MOVE TO THE GREAT SALT LAKE? 3. WHAT WAS THE GOLD RUSH? AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.3 The Plains Indians' way of life NATIVE AMERICAN LIFE WAS WELL SUITED TO THE PLAINS • Native Americans living on the Plains were also known as Plains Indians. • Most Plains Indians were nomadic (they moved from place to place) and followed buffalo herds. ● • 'The shape of tipis deflected the strong winds on the Plains. They could also be adjusted to the extreme temperatures of the Plains using ears at the top and by rolling up the bottom or banking it with earth. • Tipis were made using only 10 wooden poles covered with buffalo skin. • This dealt with the lack of resources on the Plains. They could be packed up to move in only 10 minutes and loaded on a travois for transportation. • Women owned the tipi and were responsible for it. PLAINS INDIANS WERE DIVIDED INTO TRIBES AND BANDS Plains Indians relied on the buffalo and their lifestyle was adapted to help them survive on the Plains. ● Most Native American bands lived in tipis (cone-shaped tents made from buftalo skins). • Native Americans were divided into tribes, such as the Arapahoe, Cheyenne, Pawnee and Sioux. • Small groups, called bands, lived and hunted together. Each band had a chief and a council. The council would make most important decisions. • These bands would usually contain between 10 and 50 families. • The role of men focused on hunting and protecting the band. All men were part of a warrior society. • The role of women focused on preparing food, making clothing and having responsibility for the tipi. NATIVE AMERICAN SURVIVAL DEPENDED ON THE BUFFALO ● ● Perhaps as many as 50 million buffalo lived on the Plains in the early 1800s. Native Americans would perform a buffalo dance before the hunt to bring them luck. • Horses were also vital to Native American life. The wealth of individuals and bands were often measured in the number of horses they owned. They would use every part of the buffalo: Bones were used for arrowheads, needles and tools. Dung was used for fuel. How did Plains Indians use the buffalo? Rawhide (untreated skin) was used for belts, containers and harnesses. Intestines were used for buckets and cooking. Tanned hide was treated to make it softer and was used for bedding, clothes and tipi covers. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation INDIAN WARFARE WAS OFTEN BASED ON RAIDS OR NON-LETHAL COMBAT The Sioux were widely known as the most warlike tribe. Their traditional enemies were the Crow and Pawnee. • Warfare was often conducted in small raids. • After guns arrived on the Plains, Indians often fought by counting coup (trying to get close enough to an enemy to touch them). • There were low casualties. Between 1835 and 1845 the Sioux were at war, but lost on average only four warriors a year. • Native Americans often took scalps (the top of the head, which was cut off and dried) to prevent their enemies from attacking them in the afterlife. • These were also displayed to show their bravery. ● 1. WHY WAS THE TIPI WELL SUITED TO LIVING ON THE PLAINS? 2. HOW DID PLAINS INDIANS USE THE BUFFALO? 3. WHY DID WARS BETWEEN INDIAN BANDS CAUSE FEW CASUALTIES? 4. WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING WAS THE MORE IMPORTANT REASON WHY PLAINS INDIANS WERE ABLE TO SURVIVE ON THE PLAINS? (12 MARKS) BUFFALO .THE TIPI AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.4 Early American relations with the Plains Indians and the Mormons NATIVE AMERICANS WERE FORCED WEST BEYOND A PERMANENT INDIAN FRONTIER At first, the Native Americans were seen as separate nations that the USA would have to negotiate with • In 1824, a Bureau of Indian Affairs was set up. This was a government department to manage the relationship wich Native Americans. Over time, the Native Americans came to be seen as a problem as they blocked the expansion of the USA westwards. • There was also a conflict of cultures, as many Native American tribes believed that no one could own che lana. ● ● In 185 the Indian Remova Act created a Permanent Indian Frontier • All Native Americans had to move beyond this line to make way for • American settlers. ● This was often done by torce and thousands of Native Americans died. This movement became known as the "Trail of 'cars. THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT DEVELOPED A POLICY OF CONCENTRATION AND CIVILISATION The US government tried to deal with the Plains Indians through a policy or concentration, but the continued movement of settlers west still caused conflict. ● In the 1840s, thousands of white Americans had started to travel across che • Plains to get to the West. By the 1850s, even more people were travelling west. Some Americans settled beyond the Permanent Indian Frontier on the edge ot the Plains. • The US government encouraged this movement, but it also felt a duty to protect the Native Americans. • The Indian Appropriations Act in 1851 set up reservations (arcas of land which were limited to Native Americans and which settlers could not cross, but Native Americans also could not leave). • Schools were also set up to 'civilise' Native Americans and spread American culture and Christianity. • The Fort Laramie Treaty was also signed in 1851 between the government • Dana me romas area in manons • Indian nations promised not to attack travelling settlers on the Oregon Trail and allowed some roads and torts to be built on their territory. • In return chey received payments from the rovernment. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation CONCENTRATION ULTIMATELY FAILED TO PREVENT CONFLICT WITH NATIVE AMERICANS • Some Plains Indian nations (such as the Crow) never accepted the Fort • Laramie Treaty. Some white Americans, known as exterminators, chought it would be getter to get rid of the Plains Indians. • Despite chis, there was very little conflict before 1858. ● In 1854, settlers began to move onto Indian lands in Kansas and Nebraska, breaking the Fort Laramie Treaty. • In 1858, gold was discovered in Colorado and around 100.000 setclers moved onto Indian lands to try to get rich in the Colorado Gold Rush. • The government did nothing to stop these movements or enforce the treaty. THE US GOVERNMENT ALSO INCREASINGLY TOOK CONTROL OF THE MORMON TERRITORY OF UTAH The US government tried to deal with the Plains Indians through a policy or concentration, but the continued movement of settlers west still caused conflict. ● ● Opposition to the Mormons continued to grow as many settlers complained of them charging high prices for goods. Others were afraid that the Mormons and Indians were planning to join forces to attack white Americans. People criticised Utah for being a theocracy (a state which followed religious rules, racher than the laws of the USA). • In 1857, a new non-Mormon governor was sent to Utah with troops. Brigham Young mobilised troops to stop their advance. During this Mormon War a group of over 100 settlers were murdered by Mormons following a dispute. This event was called the Mountain Meadow Massacre. ● • The Mormons were pardoned (not punished) but had to accept a non- • Mormon governor. Eventually in 1896, che Mormons banned polygamy and Utah became a US state. 1. IN WHAT WAYS WERE THE LIVES OF NATIVE AMERICANS AFFECTED BY THE MOVEMENT OF AMERICANS WESTWARDS? (8 MARKS) 2. WHY HAD ATTITUDES TO PLAINS INDIANS CHANGED BY THE 1850S? 3. WHAT WAS THE POLICY OF CONCENTRATION? 4. WHY DID CONCENTRATION FAIL TO PREVENT CONFLICT? AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.5 The Indian wars THE CHEYENNE WAR BROKE OUT IN 1863 ● • By 1863 the Cheyenne were at war wich white American militia (unofficial • armed forces drawn from local men). Militia were used because regular soldiers were fighting in the Civil War which was going on at this time. • Indians attacked ranches and small settlements on the Southern Plains. • In 1004, some cheyenne signed a treaty to end the fighting and moved onto • However, fighting continued and in 1865 the fort at Julesburg was attacked by over 1,000 warriors from the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapahoe. • The war ended in 1867, but many Cheyenne continued to fight and joined in Red Cloud's war. THE SAND CREEK MASSACRE WAS AN ATTACK ON A BAND OF PEACEFUL INDIANS Due to the Colorado Gold Rush, from 1859, the number ot miners, settlers and railway surveyors passing through Indian lands increased. Conflict developed with the Plains Indians. In 1861, the Cheyenne and Arapahoe began to attack settlers passing through their lands. • The Colorado militia was one of the many militia which had been formed to fight against the Cheyenne. ● ● Black Kettle flew a US flag over his tipi as a symbol of peace. • Colonel Chivington led 700 soldiers in an attack on the camp. Around 150 Indians were killed. Initially this was seen as a great victory for the militia In a Congressional enquiry, it was revealed chat most of che dead were children and the elderly. The soldiers also scalped the Indians. • Although Chivington was never punished, the event became known as the Sand Creek Massacre. women, ● In 1864, a band of Cheyenne led by Black Kettle had agreed to peace talks and moved onto a reservation at Sand Creck. WAR WITH THE SIOUX (RED CLOUD'S WAR) BROKE OUT IN 1865 • In 1862, gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains. A new trail, the Bozeman trail. was created to allow miners to access the area. • This trail passed through Sioux lands and new mining towns were built. • This again broke the Fort Laramie Treaty. • The government encouraged miners to move to the area, as the country was short of money after four years of Civil War. • In 1865, the Sioux began to attack cravellers along the trail. The Sioux warrior Red Cloud led a force of many Sioux bands and even some allies from the Cheyenne and Arapahoe. • The government tried to open peace talks, but continued to build forts along the trail. Red Cloud broke off negotiations and attacked the army. Although the Indians could not capture the US forts, they were able to lay siege to them (trap the soldiers inside and attack parties that left che forts. • The Indian forces also managed to prevent craveners from using che drail and even continued tightng throughout the winter ● AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 80 US SOLDIERS WERE TRAPPED AND KILLED IN THE FETTERMAN MASSACRE Fort Phil Kearney was surrounded by Indian forces. The commander • Colonel Carrington ordered his soldiers not to stray too far from the fort to avoid an ambush. ● • In December 1866, a group of 80 men led by Captain William Fetterman • rode out from the fort to protect a wood train ● They were ordered not to ride past Lodge Trail Ridge, but Fetterman saw an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the Indians. • His men were lured into a trap and ambushed. All of the men were killed and then bodies mutilated • Some historians blame Fetterman for falling into the Indian trap. THE WAR WAS ENDED BY A SECOND FORT LARAMIE TREATY • The government was not able to defeat the Indians led by Red Cloud and • they were forced to negotiate. • In 1868 the Second Fort Laramie Treaty was agreed. • The US forces withdrew from the forts and the Great Sioux Reservation was created. No non-Indians were ever to be allowed to enter this area. he Sioux burned the forts and many moved onto the reservation. • Red Cloud agreed to the Treaty, but some Sioux continued fighting under the leadership of Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.6 The American Civil War DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE NORTH AND SOUTH WERE A LONG-TERM FACTOR IN THE CIVIL WAR 'The climate in the South was well suited to crops such as cotton and tobacco. ● • The South made a lot of money selling cotton to Britain and Europe. Much of this was grown on plantations worked by slaves. Around a quarter of che population of the South depended on slavery for their income. • The Northern states were more industrialised. Slavery had disappeared in the North by 1804. Northerners were worried about competing with slave labour and there was a growing abolition movement to abolish slavery. 'The Anti-Slavery Society was set up in 1832 and called for an end to slavery and equal rights for freed slaves. ● • There was also disagreement about trade, with che Souch favouring open • trade and the North wanting their industries protected from competition. • because there were equal numbers of Northern free states scates where slavery was banned and Southern slave states. both sides had to compromise. WESTWARD EXPANSION INCREASED CONFLICT BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH • As territories in the West were settled, they could eventually apply to become US states. • 'The states joining the Union were balanced betwen slave and free states. but in 1819 Missouri was due to join as a slave state. • The Missouri Compromise allowed Missouri to join, but Maine was also created as a tree state to maintain the balance. No new slaves states were • allowed in the North. With the increased expansion after 1848 the balance was upset. This led to the Compromise of 1850, which allowed California to join as a free state. • It gave power to the states in the south-west to decide on whether to become • Free or slave states. • When two new states (Kansas and Nebraska) were created in 1854 it was decided that these states could also vote on whether to become slave states • This led to the formation of the Republican Party which was a Northern party opposing slavery. • it also led to chaos in sansas Where pro-slavery supporters poured in to vote for Kansas to become a slave state. Violence broke out between che two sides in a period referred to as Bleeding Kansas. FEARS OF ABOLITION LED SOUTHERN STATES TO LEAVE THE UNION • In 1859 a famous abolitionist called John Brown attacked a weapons store at Harpers Ferry • He was captured and hanged, but rumours spread that Brown had been planning to lead an armed slave rebellion. • Many Southerners became afraid that the North intended to attack the South and end slavery. • Then in 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected as the first Republican President. He was a strong opponent of slavery. Although Lincoln claimed he had no intention of ending slavery in the South, a number of Southern states seceded (left the Union) in fear. These states formed the Confederacy. • This lead to the four year civil war between the Union and the Confederacy. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR HAD A DEVASTATING IMPACT ON BOTH NORTH AND SOUTH • In 1863, che Emancipation Proclamation ended slavery in the United States. Many African-Americans joined the Union forces. By che end of the war in 1865, a number of industries in che North had been badly affected. • There was also inflation (rising prices) at the same time as wages fell. • However, the economic effects in the South were even worse. • The railroad system was destroyed and the crucial cotton industry was badly disrupted. • Inflation in the South became so bad it was classed as hyperinflation. ● Conscription (forced recruitment into the army) was introduced in both the North and South. This caused a lot of anger because there were exemptions (ways to avoid conscription) for the rich. THE STATUS OF FORMER SLAVES AND THE CONFEDERATE STATES WERE THE MAIN ISSUES AFTER THE WAR • 'The period after the war is known as the Reconstruction. Before the war ended, Lincoln developed a plan to readmit the Southern states into the Union. • Lincoln was assassinated in 1865 and replaced by President Andrew Johnson. • Johnson wanted to allow all of the Southern states to rejoin the Union. • Southerners had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Union and they would then have their property returned. • The state governments in the South also had to agree to the new Thirteenth • Amendment which formally ended slavery in the USA. • They also had to agree to scrap loans made to the Norch during the war, which a number of states refused to do. • The Southern states also passed black codes, which restricted the rights of cofreed slaves's ATTEMPTED TO FORCE A RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION ON THE SOUTH • In 1866, the Republicans gained control of Congress. • 'They attempted to use the law to force the Southern states to guarantee African-American rights in a period known as Radical Reconstruction. • Johnson attempted to veto (block) the Civil Rights Act to make freed slaves citizens. • However, Congress overrode this and passed the law as the Fourteenth • Amendment • This was a crucial change as the federal (national) government was interfering with state control over civil rights. Congress then divided the South into five districts controlled by a military governor. They would force the Southern states to write new constitutions and approve the Amendment. • Johnson opposed this and Congress tried but failed to impeach him (force him out of office). ● ● In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment was passed which gave freed slaves the right to vote in elections. • By 1870 all of the Southern states had rejoined che Union. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation RECONSTRUCTION FAILED IN SOME KEY AREAS Successes • Education was now available to over 600,000 black pupils in the South. . Much of the infrastructure of the South had been repaired or rebuilt. • A number of freed slaves moved north, or to farms in the south-west where they could earn higher wages. Thousands also moved to Kansas. ● Failures • Many freed slaves were forced into share cropping where they were prevented from being free because of debt. • Literacy tests and property requirements were used to prevent African • Americans from voting in the South. • The Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1866 and used violence and intimidation to attempt to prevent African-Americans from voting. By 1877, Reconstruction had come to an end and the federal government was focused on other issues such as conflict with Plains Indians and the expansion westwards. • There was hatred in the South of carpetbaggers (Northerners who came to the South during Reconstruction) and scallywags (poor Southern farmers who had supported the Union in the war). • The Reconstruction period saw the Southern states readmitted to the Union, but failed to fully guarantee the rights of African-Americans AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.7 The continued settlement of the west AFTER THE CIVIL WAR, THOUSANDS OF HOMESTEADERS WENT WEST The homesteaders moved onto the Plains to set up small farms. • There were a number of reasons why so many homesteaders moved west after the Civil War: ● Land • The government encouraged settlers onto the Plains with the offer of free land. • The Homestead Act [1862) gave families 160 acres of free land on the Plains to farm. • Extra land was available for homesteaders who planted trees or cultivated desert land. • Millions of acres of land were made available, most of it land which had once been settled by Plains Indians. The Civil War Many Americans had been uprooted by the war and sought a new start in the West. • Many demobilised soldiers (soldiers who had left the army] were now unemployed and so set up as farmers on the Plains. • Many freed slaves moved west to escape continuing racism in the South. The railroad The earliest homesteaders travelled by wagon, but in 1869 travel was made far easier by the opening of the transcontinental railroad across the Plains. . This also helped homesteaders obtain equipment and supplies to support their farms. The railroad companies also sold off cheap land either side of the railroad. HOMESTEADERS FACED A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS LIVING AND FARMING ON THE PLAINS • 'The extremes of weather and the lack of building materials made shelter a serious problem tor homesteaders. • There was also a lack of water and the sod houses (houses made of mud bricks) could be dirty and disease-ridden. • Farming on the Plains was also ditticult. Many homesteaders could not attord the most ferdle land, which was bought up by companies. • The land was difficult to plough and traditional crops did not grow well in the dry soil • Crops could also be destroved by extreme weather, wind, trampling by buttalo or by use of huge clouds of grassholders. THE HOMESTEADERS FOUND SOME SOLUTIONS TO THESE PROBLEMS Many homesteads failed, especially during the severe droughts of the 18/Us. • However, some homesteaders managed to build successful farms. • One successful technique was dry farming where the land was ploughed atter rain to trap moisture in the soil. ● • The introduction of hard winter wheat by Russian immigrants also helped as it was more suited to the soil on the Plains. • Some homesteaders used a machine called a sod-buster to break through tough roots and ease farming on the Plains. • The opering of the railroad made it easier to transport machinery to the Plains and in 18/4 the wind the was invented which allowed water to be • drawn from che ground Inc invention of oarded wire in the same vear also allowed land to be fenced of cheaply AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation 1.8 The resolution of 'the Indian problem' THE END OF THE CIVIL WAR LED TO INCREASED CONFLICT WITH THE PLAINS INDIANS • The movement of thousands of homesteaders onto the Plains caused conflict with the Native Americans on the Plains. • The US Army also had a number of well-trained croops available because of the end of the Civil War. • Officers in the army began to develop new strategies such as total war. This involved fighting against the whole Indian population by destroying their food and shelter. This forced many Indians onto the reservations. The army also began to fight winter campaigns when it was much more difficult for Indian bands to move or retreat. • The network of forts on the Plains also helped the army to resupply and the Indians were unable to capture well-defended forts. • The building of the railroad disrupted buffalo herds which put pressure on the food supply of the Plains Indians. • This was made worse when a mechod was found for making high-quality leather from buffalo hide, which led to a massive surge in buffalo hunting. • By 1875 the Southern buftalo herd had been destroved. Native American bands attempted but failed to drive hunters off the Plains. LED TO ALL-OUT WAR THE DISCOVERY OF GOLD WITH THE SIOUX In 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills, a sacred area in the Sioux lands. Thousands of miners flooded into the area, breaking the Second Fort Laramie Treaty. The US Army had underestimated the number of Indians and the timing of the attack left the three columns separated. The government did not stop this movement, but did offer to buy the Black Hills. The offer was rejected and the Sioux began making attacks on miners. In 1875, the Sioux were ordered to return to the reservation, but 7,000 Indian warriors led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse refused to do so. ● This was made worse when Custer (who had been part of Terry's column) raced to be the first to confront the Indians, refusing to take heavy Gatling guns. Custer's men were surrounded and slaughtered at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. The US Army planned to attack all Indians who were not on the reservation and Generals Crook, Gibbon and Terry marched to surround the Indian warriors. In response, thousands of reinforcements were sent to fight the Indians, and by 1877 they had been defeated and forced onto the reservations. RESERVATIONS ATTEMPTED TO BREAK NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURE AND FIGHTING SPIRIT • The destruction of the buffalo continued and by 1883 the Northern herd had been destroyed. • Reservations were split up into smaller areas of land, which prevented the Indians from following a nomadic lifestyle. Rations were soon distributed to farilies rather than chiefs to reduce their power over bands. In 1887, the Dawes Act broke up the reservations fürther into small individual plots of land. Indians were encouraged to become farmers. • Native Americans were also banned from leaving che reservations to hunt or fight. • Native American religious ceremonies were also banned and boarding schools attempted to eradicate Native American culture among children. AA America, 1840-1895: Expansion and consolidation THE BATTLE OF WOUNDED KNEE FINALLY ENDED THE RESISTANCE OF NATIVE AMERICANS A new religious movement called the Ghost Dance Movement spread through the reservations from 1889. • Many Indians believed that che dead would come back to life, the buffalo would be restored and the white Americans would disappear. • The US government was threatened by this and the army was ordered to force all Indians back on to the reservations. In 1890 a band of Indians were moved to Wounded Knee where they were shot. 146 Indians were killed in the Wounded Knee Massacre. • The removal of che final Indian bands from the Plains opened up millions of acres of land for Americans to settle.