Indian Way of Life

The Plains Indians were masters of resourcefulness, using literally every part of the buffalo for survival. From the rawhide that became shields to the dung that served as fuel, nothing went to waste! The buffalo wasn't just food—it provided shelter, tools, clothing, and even religious items.

Family life revolved around structured social systems. Young men would join warrior brotherhoods after fighting with other tribes, where they learned tribal beliefs and values. The most respected warriors might join a special guard unit that organised buffalo hunts and decided where the tribe should camp. Chiefs were chosen for their wisdom, leadership or spiritual powers, with different chiefs handling war, spiritual matters, and negotiations.

Women, though not able to become chiefs, were highly respected in Plains society. They took responsibility for using all the buffalo resources and maintaining the home. While men could have multiple wives, this was often practical as it helped distribute the significant workload of processing buffalo resources.

Did you know? Plains Indians rarely went to war and never fought in winter. Instead of killing enemies, warriors often demonstrated bravery through "counting coup"—getting close enough to tap an enemy with a stick!

Plains Indian Beliefs and American Expansion

The Plains Indians had a profoundly different relationship with nature than white settlers. They practiced animism—believing everything in nature had spirits—and saw humans as just one part of the natural world. Land was considered sacred and couldn't be owned, bought or sold, with certain areas like the Black Hills of Dakota holding special spiritual significance.

Their culture revolved around circles, representing how "the power of the world works in circles and always goes around." Religious rituals like the Sundance demonstrated loyalty through physical endurance—participants would pierce their chests with daggers and be suspended to show their faith.

From 1830-1851, the US government dramatically changed its approach to Native Americans. President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, forcing 46,000 American Indians west of the Mississippi River. The government established a "permanent Indian frontier" and passed the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act (1834), promising land west of the Mississippi would belong to Plains Indians.

However, America's rapid expansion soon undermined these promises. Texas joined the USA (1840), Oregon came under American control (1846), and victory in the Mexican War (1848) added California and other western territories. Suddenly, instead of being on the edge of the country, Native American lands were right in the middle of the expanding nation.

Bold truth: The government's "permanent" Indian frontier lasted less than 20 years before being abandoned to make way for westward expansion.

The Beginning of Reservations

By 1851, the government needed a new strategy as white settlers were pushing across Native American territories. The Indian Appropriation Act provided money to start moving Plains Indians onto "reservations"—designated areas where tribes would be contained. This was formalized in the Fort Laramie Treaty, which claimed to allow Native Americans to maintain their traditional way of life.

While reservations included some hunting land, the dramatic reduction in territory made traditional buffalo hunting increasingly difficult. This was no accident—the government hoped this would force Plains Indians to give up hunting and start farming, essentially becoming more like white Americans.

Meanwhile, thousands of settlers were heading west. The Oregon Trail, established in 1811, became the highway to new opportunities. Wagon trains traveled at just 4 miles an hour, taking 5 months to cover the distance. By 1855, around 500,000 people had made the journey, with California's population reaching 300,000.

Reality check: Though many people headed west dreaming of striking it rich in the gold rush, very few actually became wealthy. Most ended up as farmers or returned home disappointed. The California Gold Rush of 1849 brought 100,000 people westward, but many suffered from buying overpriced "necessary" equipment sold at 75% profit margins.

Impact on Native Americans and Early Settlers

The Gold Rush devastated Native American communities. White settlers murdered indigenous people and forcibly removed tribes from potential gold claims. Diseases brought by international prospectors dramatically decreased Native populations. The mere rumour of gold would bring hordes of prospectors into an area, regardless of existing treaties.

Not all journeys west ended in prosperity. The Donner Party of 1846 became one of the most tragic tales of westward migration. Taking a shortcut on the Oregon Trail, they faced the worst winter in history and became stranded in the Sierra Mountains for over three months. With 90 members trapped and starving, some resorted to cannibalism to survive.

The Mormons represent another important migration story. Founded by Joseph Smith in the early 1800s, who claimed to have spoken with God and Jesus, this religious group faced intense persecution. After Smith was murdered in prison in 1844, Brigham Young led the Mormons on a 2,000 km journey to Salt Lake Valley in 1847.

Young's leadership was brilliant—he researched the best routes, organized travelers into groups so they wouldn't get lost, and had earlier groups plant crops for those coming behind them. This strategic planning helped them succeed where others failed.

Interesting fact: Mormons believed Native Americans were originally from Israel but had their skin turned red as divine punishment. This belief, while incorrect, influenced how they interacted with indigenous peoples.

The Fort Laramie Treaty and Its Consequences

As white settlers and relocated eastern tribes moved across the "permanent" Indian frontier, tensions escalated. Settlers disrupted buffalo herds and spread diseases, leading many tribes to become hostile. Attacks on wagons traveling along the Oregon Trail increased as conflicts grew.

The core problem was a profound cultural misunderstanding about land. Plains Indians viewed land as sacred and something that couldn't be owned, while white settlers believed it could be bought, sold, and exploited for resources. This fundamental difference made conflict inevitable.

The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was the government's solution, bundling Native Americans into smaller reservations. While supposedly aimed at reducing tribal conflicts, it clearly favored white settlers by giving them greater access to land. The treaty divided the tribes—making them easier to control—and allowed the government to claim more territory for settlement.

Though the treaty promised Plains Indians possession of their land, this came with major conditions: white settlers would have free passage on the Oregon Trail and could build forts and roads. Many reservation lands lacked the resources needed for traditional Native American survival.

Treaty consequences: By making Plains Indians dependent on the US government for basic necessities, the treaty created a power imbalance. Tribes couldn't challenge unfair treatment for fear their resources would be taken away. This dependency was completely foreign to their traditional way of life and increased tensions that eventually led to the Plains Wars.

Life as a Homesteader

The US government actively encouraged settlement of the plains through Manifest Destiny—the belief that white Americans were destined by God to spread democracy and capitalism across the continent. The Homestead Act of 1862 gave each settler 160 acres of free land if they farmed it for five years. Between 1862 and 1900, around 600,000 people claimed land under this act.

Life as a homesteader was brutally challenging. The plains received half as much rainfall as the eastern states, with few rivers or streams. It was too dry for trees to grow, leaving settlers without timber for houses, fences, or fuel. Extreme weather brought both scorching summers and freezing winters, while hailstorms and thunderstorms frequently destroyed crops.

Without wood, homesteaders built sod houses—homes made from blocks of earth held together by grass roots. Though practical, these houses were unhygienic and often infested with insects. Settlers would whitewash the walls (paint them with lime and water) to reduce insect problems and make the homes more livable.

Isolation was another constant challenge. With neighbors often miles away, loneliness affected many settlers, particularly women. As more people arrived, communities formed church groups, schools, and shops to combat this isolation.

Did you know? Sod houses were actually quite good insulators—keeping occupants cool in summer and warm in winter—despite their other drawbacks like leaking when it rained and housing unwelcome insects and small animals!

Law and Order in the Early West

When settlers flooded into the West, particularly during gold rushes, law and order systems couldn't keep up. Huge camp cities grew too quickly for state or federal law to function effectively. Problems like claim jumping (stealing someone's land claim) and salting a claim (scattering gold flakes to trick buyers) became common.

The diverse population coming from around the world created tensions. A massive increase in Chinese migrants in 1852, fleeing famine in China, led to racial violence. Saloons with alcohol and prostitution contributed to drunken fights between armed men, creating dangerous environments.

Early law enforcement faced significant challenges. Sheriffs had no formal legal training, leaving them to use their own judgment with little accountability. They were poorly paid, making the position vulnerable to corruption and bribery. America's vast geography made tracking criminals extremely difficult.

To address these problems, communities formed vigilance committees that created and enforced their own rules. During a crime wave in San Francisco in 1851, wealthy businessmen organized a committee of 200 men who caught, tried, and punished suspected criminals—sometimes hanging or deporting them if found guilty.

Law enforcement reality: Early sheriffs often "made up the rules as they went along" because they had no formal training. This sometimes led to corruption and abuse of power, as there was little oversight of their actions. It wasn't until 1940 that the National Sheriffs' Association established professional standards.

The Civil War and the Railroad

The American Civil War (1861-1865) was the deadliest conflict in US history, with 600,000 Americans killed. The war centered around slavery—the South wanted to expand it into new territories while the North opposed this. When Abraham Lincoln was elected, 11 southern states formed the Confederacy and broke away. The North's victory and Lincoln's decision to free the slaves destroyed the foundation of the South's economy.

Two critical pieces of legislation emerged from the Civil War: the Homestead Act (May 1862), designed to settle the West with individual farms owned by free citizens, and the Pacific Railroad Act (July 1862), aimed at connecting the western lands with northern industrial cities.

The railroad transformed the American West. Built by two companies—the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific—it stretched 2,000 km and was completed in 1869. The government subsidized construction, providing $16,000 for each mile of track and$48,000 per mile in mountainous areas.

For homesteaders, the railroad was revolutionary. They could now visit family more easily, import suitable crops for plains farming, and order manufactured products. The Timber Culture Act offered additional land to those who planted trees, which would serve as windbreakers against harsh weather and provide much-needed timber.

Railroad impact: Towns sprung up at regular intervals along the tracks, creating new communities and markets. Technologies like windmills could now be transported west, helping settlers access underground water despite the dry conditions.

Conflict Between Settlers and Plains Indians

The railroad had devastating consequences for Plains Indians, who hadn't realized how much land it would claim or its impact on buffalo hunting. Railroad companies encouraged buffalo hunting, making traditional Native life increasingly difficult. Some Native Americans retaliated by derailing tracks.

Several major conflicts erupted as tensions increased. Little Crow's War (1862) began when the Santee Sioux, facing starvation due to Civil War shortages and delayed government payments, attacked settlers after four Dakota warriors murdered five settlers. The uprising ended with the Dakota's defeat, 38 prisoners hanged, and most of the tribe expelled from their remaining land.

The Sand Creek Massacre (1864) occurred after the Cheyenne, unable to grow crops on infertile reservation land or find buffalo, raided wagon trains for food. Though Chief Black Kettle sought peace, John Chivington's forces attacked their camp while most men were out hunting. Of the 500 people in camp, 163 were killed—mostly women and children.

Red Cloud's War (1866-68) erupted when the Bozeman Trail was established through Sioux hunting grounds guaranteed by the Fort Laramie Treaty. When the army tried to build protective forts, the Sioux, led by Red Cloud, began attacking. After Captain Fetterman and his 80 troops were killed in an ambush, the US Army surrendered and abandoned the forts—a rare major victory for Native forces.

Critical turning point: Red Cloud's victory was one of the few times Native Americans successfully forced the US government to abandon its plans. This success, however, would be short-lived as pressure for western lands continued to build.

Cowboys and the Cattle Industry

The cattle industry transformed dramatically after the Civil War. While a single cow was worth just a few dollars in Texas, that same cow could fetch $60 in Chicago. This price difference, combined with increased northern demand for beef, led to the "beef bonanza"—a period of massive profit potential in cattle ranching.

Cowboys played a crucial role in this industry. Originally called "vaqueros" by Spanish settlers, cowboys were often Black or Mexican workers who managed cattle herds. Their work was both difficult and dangerous. During spring and summer, they rounded up herds, branded young animals, and conducted cattle drives covering hundreds of miles.

These drives typically involved 3,000 cattle and 12 cowboys traveling for months across challenging terrain. Cowboys had specialized roles: the trail boss led the operation, some steered the herd, others rode along the edges keeping cattle together, and the unfortunate "drag riders" followed at the rear in dusty conditions. They faced hazards including fast-flowing rivers, mountains, raiding Indians, snakes, and wild animals.

After drives were complete, cowboys returned to ranches for the solitary winter job of "line riding"—living in small shacks along ranch boundaries and herding stray cattle back to their employer's land. This was necessary because, before barbed wire became common in 1874, there were no fences to contain cattle.

Cowboy gear: Every piece of cowboy equipment had a practical purpose. High-heeled boots kept feet from slipping through stirrups, wide-brimmed hats provided protection from sun and rain, and bandanas filtered dust during cattle drives. Far from being just fashion, these were essential tools for survival.