Resolving the Breton Crisis

The conflict over Brittany was resolved through diplomatic means:

1. England and France signed the Treaty of Etaples in 1492.
2. The Breton Crisis was considered a success for Henry VII's foreign policy.
3. Brittany was eventually absorbed into the French state in 1532.

Highlight: The diplomatic resolution of the Breton Crisis demonstrated Henry VII's skill in balancing military action with negotiation.

Encouraging Trade and Exploration

Henry VII took several steps to boost England's trade and exploration:

1. He sought to break up the Hanseatic League, which dominated trade in the Netherlands.
2. The Navigation Act of 1485-86 encouraged the use of English ships for carrying goods.
3. An act passed in 1489 limited the export of English wool.
4. The Intercursus Magnus of 1496 allowed English merchants greater trading rights.

Example: By the end of Henry's reign, the export of raw wool was 30% lower than in 1485, while cloth exports to Europe increased by 60% by 1509.

Henry also focused on developing trade with the New World and improving relations with Italian states:

1. In 1490, a treaty was signed allowing English wool to be imported to Pisa.
2. Venice, which dominated Mediterranean trade, became a target for English commercial expansion.

Vocabulary: Intercursus Magnus: A significant trade agreement that improved commercial relations between England and the Low Countries.

Relations with Burgundy, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire

Henry VII recognized the importance of maintaining good relations with these regions:

1. Most English exports went through the Netherlands, making it crucial for trade.
2. Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, was the sister of Richard III and posed a potential threat to Henry's rule.
3. Henry initially wanted to stop trading to strengthen his kingship but later improved relations.

Key developments:

• 1496: Intercursus Magnus signed, improving trade relations
• 1506: Treaty of Windsor established, further strengthening ties
• Philip/Maximilian agreed to hand over Edmund De La Pole, a potential rival to Henry

Highlight: These diplomatic efforts significantly improved trade overall and strengthened Henry VII's position.

Relations with Spain

Henry VII sought to establish strong ties with Spain, ruled by Ferdinand and Isabella:

1. The Treaty of Medina Del Campo was signed, addressing mutual concerns.
2. Ferdinand was worried about the threat of Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne.
3. The death of Prince Arthur in 1502 and Isabella's death in 1504 led to power struggles in Spain.
4. Henry sided with Joanna $Ferdinand's daughter$ and her husband Philip of Burgundy.
5. The Treaty of Windsor in 1506 further solidified relations.

Example: When Philip died in 1506, Ferdinand regained control, leaving Henry somewhat isolated. This demonstrates the fluid nature of alliances in European politics during this period.

Relations with Scotland

Henry VII's approach to Scotland evolved over time:

1. 1485-1495: Relations were tense between England and Scotland.
2. 1485: Henry signed a 3-year truce with the Scots.
3. 1488: James III of Scotland was assassinated, and James IV $aged 15$ succeeded him.
4. Scotland initially supported Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English throne.
5. 1497: The Truce of Ayton was signed, improving relations.
6. 1502: The Treaty of Perpetual Peace was established, granting James IV marriage to Henry's daughter Margaret.

Highlight: The marriage alliance between Scotland and England was a significant diplomatic achievement for Henry VII, aiming to secure long-term peace between the two kingdoms.

Ireland

Henry VII's control in Ireland was limited:

1. His power mainly extended to the areas surrounding Dublin.
2. The Earl of Kildare served as Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1477.
3. Henry feared Kildare's influence and sought to assert more direct control.
4. He used Englishmen to govern Ireland, finding the Irish aristocracy unreliable.
5. Henry made his son, Prince Henry, Lieutenant of Ireland, with Sir Edward Poynings as his deputy.
6. The Poynings' Law of 1495 increased English control over the Irish parliament.

Definition: Poynings' Law: A statute that required all Irish legislation to be approved by the English monarch and council before being passed in Ireland.

By 1500, Henry had achieved a relatively inexpensive peace in Ireland, with support for Yorkist claimants diminishing.

Treaties and Truces in Henry VII's Foreign Policy

Understanding the difference:

• Treaty: A permanent, long-term agreement
• Truce: A short-term suspension of hostilities

Key treaties and truces during Henry VII's reign:

1. Treaty of Redon $February 1489$: Signed between Henry VII and representatives of Brittany Henry sent 6,000 English troops under Lord Daubeney's command
2. Treaty of Etaples $1492$: Ended the English invasion of France France agreed to expel Perkin Warbeck and pay England an indemnity of £159,000 England accepted French control of Brittany France withdrew support for Warbeck War indemnity of 745,000 crowns, payable at 50,000 crowns per annum
3. Treaty of Medina del Campo $1489$: Established an alliance between England and Spain Addressed mutual concerns, including the threat of Perkin Warbeck

Quote: "The Treaty of Etaples was ratified in December, marking a significant diplomatic success for Henry VII in his dealings with France."

These treaties and truces played a crucial role in shaping Henry VII's foreign policy, helping to secure England's position in Europe and protect its interests abroad.

Conclusion: Evaluating Henry VII's Foreign Policy

Henry VII's foreign policy achievements:

1. Successfully navigated the Breton Crisis, balancing military action with diplomacy
2. Improved trade relations through strategic agreements like the Intercursus Magnus
3. Established alliances with major European powers, including Spain and Scotland
4. Stabilized relations with Ireland through a combination of force and negotiation
5. Secured favorable treaties that protected English interests and strengthened the Tudor dynasty

Highlight: Henry VII's foreign policy was characterized by a pragmatic approach that prioritized England's security and economic interests while avoiding costly wars.

Challenges and limitations:

1. Occasional isolation, such as after the death of Philip of Burgundy
2. Ongoing threats from pretenders like Perkin Warbeck
3. Limited control over Ireland beyond the Pale

Overall, Henry VII's foreign policy can be considered largely successful in achieving its main aims of national security, dynastic recognition, and trade protection. His diplomatic skills and strategic thinking laid a strong foundation for England's future role in European affairs.

Example: The marriage alliance with Scotland, formalized in the Treaty of Perpetual Peace, demonstrated Henry's long-term vision for stability and peace on the British Isles.

Commercial Treaties and Trade Relations

The period saw significant development in commercial diplomacy and trade agreements.

Highlight: The Treaty of Windsor included both political and commercial provisions, including extradition agreements and marriage arrangements.

Example: The Malus Intercursus demonstrated how unexpected events $Philip's shipwreck$ could influence diplomatic relations.

Henry VII's Foreign Policy Aims

Henry VII's foreign policy was driven by three main objectives:

1. Ensuring national security for England
2. Gaining recognition for the Tudor dynasty
3. Defending English trading interests

These aims shaped his approach to international relations throughout his reign.

Highlight: Henry VII's primary focus was on strengthening England's position both militarily and economically.

The Breton Crisis

The situation in Brittany, an independent area in France, became a concern for Henry VII when France invaded in 1487. This alarmed Henry because:

• If France gained control of Brittany, England's south coast would be militarily vulnerable
• Calais would be at greater risk
• Trade could be disrupted

Henry felt obligated to help Brittany after they had sheltered him previously. This led to the Treaty of Redon in February 1489, where:

• The Duchess Anne of Brittany paid for a small English force to defend Brittany
• Parliament granted £100,000 to finance the force
• Henry increased troops to 12,000

Example: The English army crossed the Channel in April 1489, with Henry aiming to defend Brittany rather than engage in full-scale war with France.