Queen, Government and Religion, 1558-69

When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she faced massive problems that would've made most people quit on day one. She was young, unmarried, and many Catholics thought she was illegitimate - basically questioning her right to rule at all. The Crown was drowning in debt (£300,000, which was absolutely massive back then), and Catholic countries like France and Spain were eyeing up Mary, Queen of Scots as a better replacement.

Elizabethan society was strictly hierarchical, like a pyramid you couldn't escape from. In the countryside, you had nobility at the top, followed by gentry, yeomen, tenant farmers, and the unfortunate landless poor at the bottom. Towns had their own pecking order with merchants ruling over professionals, skilled craftsmen, and finally the unemployed.

The biggest headache was religion - England was a complete mess of competing beliefs. Catholics wanted the Pope in charge and fancy Latin services, Protestants preferred English services and simpler churches, whilst Puritans were ultra-strict Protestants who thought even Protestant churches were too flashy. Elizabeth's Religious Settlement of 1559 tried to create a compromise that wouldn't start a civil war.

Key Point: Elizabeth's government structure relied on her Privy Council (about 19 advisers), Parliament (which she could call or dismiss), and local Justices of the Peace to actually enforce laws across the country.

Challenges to Elizabeth at Home and Abroad, 1569-88

Just when Elizabeth thought she'd sorted out the religious mess, the real drama kicked off. The Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569-70 was basically a Catholic tantrum - northern nobles wanted to dump Elizabeth, make Mary Queen of Scots the new monarch, and return England to Catholicism. It failed spectacularly, but it proved that Mary was trouble with a capital T.

What followed was a decade of increasingly desperate Catholic plots that read like a thriller novel. The Ridolfi Plot (1571) involved an Italian banker, Spanish invasion plans, and 10,000 troops. The Throckmorton Plot (1583) brought France into the mix with the Duke of Guise planning another invasion. Finally, the Babington Plot (1586) was the last straw - when Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham intercepted letters proving Mary's involvement, it sealed Mary's fate.

Spain became Elizabeth's biggest nightmare as tensions escalated over religion, trade, and the Netherlands. Philip II was furious about English privateers like Francis Drake stealing Spanish treasure $£400,000 worth between 1577-80$ and Elizabeth's support for Dutch Protestant rebels. When England signed the Treaty of Nonsuch in 1585, officially supporting the Dutch, Philip decided enough was enough.

Key Point: The Spanish Armada of 1588 failed due to superior English tactics, better ships, terrible weather, and Spain's inability to coordinate between their fleet and land forces - proving England was now a serious naval power.

Francis Walsingham and Espionage

Francis Walsingham was basically Elizabeth's version of a modern intelligence chief, running a spy network that would make MI5 proud. He had informants in every major town and city, used secret codes for all communications, and wasn't afraid to use torture to extract information. His methods were brutal but effective - he uncovered every major plot against Elizabeth's life.

The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 was the culmination of Walsingham's detective work. He'd gathered evidence proving Mary's involvement in multiple plots, and her continued existence gave Catholics a rallying point against Elizabeth. With Spanish support behind these assassination attempts, Mary's claim to the English throne made her too dangerous to keep alive.

Relations with Spain deteriorated rapidly due to both religious and commercial rivalry. England and Spain were fighting over trade routes to the New World, and Spanish control of European trade routes frustrated English merchants. Elizabeth's knighting of Francis Drake after his treasure-hunting expeditions was like waving a red flag at Philip II.

Key Point: The combination of religious differences, commercial competition, and Elizabeth's support for Dutch rebels created the perfect storm that led to the Spanish Armada - the defining moment of her reign.

Elizabethan Society in the Age of Exploration

Education in Elizabethan England was all about preparing people for their expected place in society, with only 15-20% of the population able to read and write. However, the growth of trade and Protestantism was changing attitudes - people needed literacy skills more than ever. The printing press made books cheaper, and new schools were popping up everywhere from parish schools for basic literacy to grammar schools for the middle classes.

Entertainment varied dramatically by social class. The nobility enjoyed hunting, real tennis, and music, whilst ordinary people made do with football, wrestling, and bear baiting. Theatre exploded during Elizabeth's reign with purpose-built venues like the Globe and professional acting companies sponsored by wealthy patrons.

Poverty became a major social problem as England's population jumped from 3 million to 4.2 million between 1551-1601. Bad harvests, enclosure (wealthy landowners kicking farmers off their land), and economic recession created armies of unemployed vagrants. The government distinguished between the 'deserving poor' who couldn't help themselves and the 'idle poor' who supposedly chose not to work.

Key Point: The colonisation of Virginia (1584-5) failed due to poor planning, lack of supplies, inexperienced colonists, and conflicts with Native Americans - but it marked England's first serious attempt at New World expansion.

Exploration and the New World

Elizabethan exploration was driven by a perfect combination of factors that transformed England into a maritime power. Improvements in ship design, navigation technology like astrolabes and quadrants, and better maps made long voyages more feasible and profitable than ever before.

Francis Drake's circumnavigation (1577-1580) was the ultimate publicity stunt that announced England's arrival as a serious naval power. Not only did it enhance England's international reputation, but it also demonstrated that English ships could compete with Spanish vessels anywhere in the world. The expedition brought back enormous wealth whilst proving that global trade routes were within England's reach.

The New World offered incredible opportunities for trade, resources, and establishing bases to attack Spanish settlements. The Trade Triangle connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas promised massive profits for anyone brave enough to make the journey.

Key Point: English exploration combined practical motivations (trade and resources), technological advances (better ships and navigation), and pure adventure - setting the stage for England's later colonial empire.

Elizabethan Government Structure

Elizabeth's government operated on the principle of Divine Right - the belief that monarchs ruled by God's grace and therefore had ultimate authority. Elizabeth made all major decisions about war, calling Parliament, and foreign policy, though she was clever enough to listen to advice before deciding.

The Privy Council was Elizabeth's inner circle of about 19 advisers who met three times weekly to debate issues and ensure royal decisions were implemented. Her Secretary of State (Sir William Cecil from 1573) was essentially her right-hand man, handling security and the most sensitive government business.

Parliament could only meet when Elizabeth called it (which happened just ten times in 45 years), and its main job was granting taxation when royal income wasn't enough. The royal prerogative meant Elizabeth could ban Parliament from discussing certain topics like marriage, succession, or foreign policy - areas she considered her exclusive domain.

Local government relied on Lords Lieutenant in each county (responsible for defence and militia) and Justices of the Peace who enforced laws and acted as local judges. This system meant Elizabeth could govern the entire country through a network of unpaid local officials who saw their positions as marks of social status.

Key Point: Elizabeth's government balanced royal authority with practical cooperation - she needed Parliament for extraordinary taxation and local officials to enforce her policies, but retained ultimate control over the most important decisions.