Edward VI's Precarious Start (1547-1553)

When Henry VIII died in 1547, he left behind a nine-year-old heir and a country in crisis. Edward VI inherited massive debts, religious confusion, and a population struggling with rising prices and unemployment.

The Earl of Hertford (later Duke of Somerset) quickly seized power as Lord Protector, ignoring Henry's careful plans for a 16-man regency council. This power grab set a dangerous precedent that would haunt Edward's entire reign.

Edward himself was brilliant but cold - he could write in Greek and understood military finance, yet showed little emotion when his uncle was executed. His sheltered upbringing meant he'd never played contact sports or spent time alone, making him oddly detached from normal life.

Key Insight: The concept of a "mid-Tudor crisis" suggests England was on the verge of collapse, but revisionist historians argue the state was actually remarkably resilient during this turbulent period.

Somerset: The "Good Duke" or Disaster? (1547-1549)

Somerset's economic policies were catastrophic. He debased the coinage to raise £537,000, which triggered massive inflation that saw wages fall by 50% between 1540-1550. His sheep tax aimed at stopping enclosure backfired spectacularly.

Two major rebellions in 1549 nearly brought down the government. Kett's Rebellion in Norfolk saw 16,000 rebels take Norwich, whilst the Western Rebellion in Cornwall and Devon opposed Somerset's new Protestant Book of Common Prayer. Both were brutally suppressed with thousands killed.

Somerset's foreign policy was equally disastrous. His Scottish campaigns cost over £580,000 and achieved nothing permanent. Despite winning the Battle of Pinkie in 1547, Scotland's alliance with France only strengthened.

Religious reform accelerated under Somerset. The Act of Uniformity 1549 and new prayer book sparked the Western Rebellion, showing how quickly religious change could destabilise the country.

Key Insight: Somerset surrounded himself with yes-men and ignored the Privy Council's advice - his arrogance and isolation made his downfall inevitable.

Northumberland: A More Successful Approach? (1549-1553)

John Dudley (Duke of Northumberland) learned from Somerset's mistakes. He ended the costly foreign wars through the Treaty of Boulogne, bringing in 400,000 crowns and stopping England from bankruptcy.

Financial recovery became Northumberland's priority. With skilled administrators like William Cecil, he streamlined government departments and reduced royal debt from £300,000 to £180,000 by 1553. This solid financial management laid foundations for future prosperity.

Religious policy became more extreme under Northumberland as he courted Edward's favour. The 1552 Book of Common Prayer and Forty-Two Articles created a distinctly Protestant England, stripping churches of Catholic imagery and practices.

However, Northumberland's desperation to maintain power led to his downfall. When Edward fell ill in 1553, he persuaded the dying king to change the succession in favour of Lady Jane Grey - his daughter-in-law - rather than the rightful heir, Mary.

Key Insight: Northumberland's coup attempt revealed that even successful governance meant nothing without legitimacy - the English people's belief in rightful succession proved stronger than political convenience.

Edward VI's Mixed Legacy

Edward's reign achieved some remarkable successes despite the challenges. Religious reform flourished with church services translated into English and 40 Protestant reformers welcomed from Europe. The Treason Act allowed people to worship without fear.

Government efficiency improved under Northumberland's leadership. Edward himself began attending Privy Council meetings by 1552, showing growing maturity. The unpopular Vagrancy Act and Sheep Tax were repealed, addressing some social problems.

Yet serious problems persisted. Two major rebellions in 1549 revealed deep social tensions over enclosure and religious change. Bad harvests in 1548, 1550, and 1551 worsened poverty and unemployment.

Economic challenges remained severe. The Scottish wars cost £580,393, debasement caused inflation, and the Antwerp cloth market collapsed in the early 1550s. Despite Northumberland's improvements, fundamental structural problems weren't solved.

Key Insight: Edward's reign proved that even a minor could govern effectively with the right advisors, but it also showed how quickly religious and economic tensions could destabilise the entire kingdom.

Mary's Triumphant Accession (1553)

When Edward died in July 1553, Northumberland's plot to install Lady Jane Grey collapsed within days. Mary's blood claim as Henry VIII's daughter trumped any legal manipulation - the English people instinctively supported rightful succession.

Mary's popular support was overwhelming. She gathered 20,000 supporters in East Anglia, where Northumberland had ruthlessly suppressed Kett's Rebellion. People celebrated in the streets, rang bells, and lit bonfires when she entered London triumphantly.

Lady Jane Grey, the reluctant sixteen-year-old queen, was highly intelligent and spoke multiple languages, but her nine-day reign ended when even her supporters abandoned Northumberland's cause. She was imprisoned and later executed following her father's involvement in Wyatt's Rebellion.

Northumberland's unpopularity proved decisive. His harsh treatment of the poor, support for greedy landowners, and transparent power-grabbing through his son's marriage to Jane made him widely hated.

Key Insight: Mary's accession showed that in Tudor England, divine right and legitimate succession mattered more to ordinary people than religious or political considerations.

Mary's Government: Reform or Reaction?

Mary packed her 50-member Privy Council with Catholic loyalists, though day-to-day business was handled by a Select Council of nine trusted advisors. This conciliar government system would later influence Elizabeth I's approach to ruling.

Key figures shaped policy significantly. Bishop Stephen Gardiner became Lord Chancellor, whilst William Paget (a skilled Protestant operator) provided political continuity. Cardinal Reginald Pole arrived as papal legate in 1554, formally restoring England to papal obedience.

Parliamentary relations proved challenging. MPs refused to restore church lands, attach penalties for missing Catholic Mass, or accept Mary's proposed marriage to Philip II. However, they did agree to reunion with Rome - provided they kept their property.

Factional divisions between pro-Catholics and Conservatives created ongoing friction. Many conservatives had served under Edward, creating tension between religious conviction and political pragmatism.

Key Insight: Mary's government was surprisingly effective when dealing with non-religious matters, suggesting that religious divisions, rather than administrative incompetence, caused most problems.

Mary's Foreign Policy: England or Spain First?

Mary's marriage to Philip II in 1554 transformed English foreign policy. Despite treaty provisions limiting Philip's power, his influence pushed England into Spanish Habsburg interests rather than English ones.

The cloth trade with Antwerp continued declining, whilst new exploration ventures to Morocco and Guinea remained small-scale. Mary's backing of explorers like Richard Chancellor searching for North-East passages showed some commercial ambition.

War with France (1557-1558) proved disastrous. Philip convinced Mary to support Spain despite England's financial weakness. Though English forces helped win the siege of St. Quentin, the loss of Calais in January 1558 was humiliating - England's last continental possession was gone.

Naval reforms provided Mary's one foreign policy success. Using Spanish galleons as blueprints, she built six new ships and repaired others, creating a 21-ship navy that enhanced England's military standing.

Key Insight: Mary's foreign policy clearly served Spanish rather than English interests - her emotional attachment to Philip and Catholic solidarity consistently overrode practical English concerns.

European Context: The Habsburg-Valois Struggle

Mary inherited a complex European situation dominated by the ongoing Habsburg-Valois wars between Spain and France. Her marriage to Philip II automatically aligned England with Spanish interests against traditional French enemies.

Scotland remained problematic, especially after Mary Queen of Scots married the French Dauphin Francis in 1558. This Franco-Scottish alliance threatened England's northern border and raised fears of French encirclement.

The Papal States under Pope Paul IV complicated matters further by supporting France against Spain from 1556. This meant Mary found herself at war with the Papacy whilst trying to restore Catholic England - an impossible contradiction.

Charles V's abdication in 1556 split Habsburg territories between his brother Ferdinand (Holy Roman Emperor) and son Philip II (Spain, Netherlands, Spanish America). This division reduced Habsburg power but increased Philip's focus on his Spanish inheritance.

Key Insight: Mary's foreign policy failures stemmed from trying to serve too many masters - her husband Philip, the Pope, and English national interests often pulled in completely different directions.

The Counter-Reformation Begins

By 1553, England was legally Protestant following Edward's reforms, but popular attitudes remained mixed. Protestantism had taken root in London, the Southeast, and East Anglia, whilst conservative areas like Lancashire and the Southwest stayed largely Catholic.

Mary's restoration began immediately. The First Statute of Repeal (1553) reversed Edward's religious laws, whilst the Second Statute of Repeal (1555) restored papal authority and introduced heresy laws with burning as punishment.

Cardinal Pole's reforms attempted to improve Catholic Church quality. His Legatine Synod (1555-56) demanded bishops stay in their dioceses, preach regularly, and recruit better-educated priests. These practical reforms showed genuine desire for religious improvement.

The burning of 289 Protestants began in February 1555, including prominent figures like Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley. However, most victims were ordinary people, which aroused public sympathy and created Protestant martyrs.

Key Insight: Mary's religious restoration succeeded legally but failed to win popular hearts - the burnings actually strengthened Protestant resolve rather than eliminating it.

The Marian Persecutions: Success or Failure?

Stephen Gardiner initially urged restraint in dealing with Protestants, believing a few executions would frighten others into conformity. His death in 1555 removed this moderating influence, allowing Cardinal Pole to convince Mary that eliminating heretics was their sacred duty.

The 289 Protestant martyrs included bishops, preachers, and ordinary believers. Thomas Cranmer's execution in 1556 particularly backfired - his dramatic recantation and final defiant speech at the stake created a powerful Protestant symbol.

Popular reaction turned against Mary as the burnings continued. Areas with Protestant sympathies were flooded with Protestant literature from Europe, whilst Foxe's Book of Martyrs (published 1563) immortalised the victims and shaped anti-Catholic sentiment for generations.

Religious diversity remained despite official Catholic restoration. By Mary's death in 1558, England was officially Catholic but lacked genuine popular support. Many people conformed outwardly whilst maintaining Protestant beliefs privately.

Key Insight: Mary's persecution created exactly the opposite of what she intended - instead of crushing Protestantism, it created martyrs and strengthened Protestant identity, ensuring her religious settlement would not survive her death.