20th Century Presidency Timeline

The American presidency evolved dramatically throughout the 20th century, moving through distinct phases of power and influence. The timeline begins with the Emerging International Presence (1901-1920), when presidents like Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson established America as a global power.

Following this came the era of Passive Presidents (1921-1932), featuring Harding, Coolidge and Hoover, who generally favoured limited government intervention. This approach was dramatically reversed during FDR's presidency (1933-1945), which revolutionized the office through the New Deal and World War II.

The post-war years saw the rise of the Imperial Presidency (1945-1963) under Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy, when presidential power expanded significantly. However, the Limits of Presidency became apparent between 1963-1972 with Johnson and Nixon facing major challenges. The presidency was further Weakened (1972-1980) through Watergate and Carter's struggles, before experiencing a Recovery (1981-2000) under Reagan, Bush Sr., and Clinton.

Did you know? The term "Imperial Presidency" was coined by historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. to describe the expansion of presidential power that occurred particularly after World War II.

Key Presidential Figures

Understanding the 20th century presidency requires familiarity with its most influential figures and their defining characteristics. The era begins with Theodore Roosevelt, who expanded American influence globally while tackling corporate monopolies at home, followed by Woodrow Wilson, whose idealism shaped post-WWI negotiations.

The 1920s brought more passive leadership with Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, who generally preferred limited government intervention. This approach was thoroughly rejected during the Great Depression by Franklin Roosevelt, whose economic and domestic policies fundamentally transformed the relationship between Americans and their government.

The Cold War era saw presidencies defined by international tensions. Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, and JFK established America's global containment strategy, while Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon grappled with the limitations of American power in Vietnam. After Nixon's resignation and Jimmy Carter's struggles with economic and international crises, Ronald Reagan, George Bush Sr., and Bill Clinton worked to restore presidential authority and American confidence.

Remember this! Each president's effectiveness was often determined by their ability to balance domestic policy achievements with foreign policy success – very few managed to excel at both.

Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)

Before Theodore Roosevelt, the presidency was deliberately designed to be weak. The Founding Fathers, fearing tyranny after fighting against King George III, created a system where the president would be held accountable by Congress and the Supreme Court. America remained largely isolationist with no clear vision for presidential power.

Roosevelt dramatically changed this paradigm. As a self-described "steward of the people," he fought against limited government, individualism, and corporate greed. His "Square Deal" brought significant improvements to American life, particularly in the workplace. Roosevelt wasn't afraid to use presidential power to regulate business, establishing the Secretary of Commerce and Industries and inspecting financial records of interstate businesses.

His trust-busting achievements were remarkable – using the Sherman Antitrust Act, he broke up the Northern Securities Company and 43 other major corporations. Roosevelt also tackled consumer protection through the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act (1906). As America's first conservationist president, he created more national parks than any other president, protecting sites like the Grand Canyon and setting aside 200 million acres for national forests and wildlife reserves.

Think about it: Roosevelt expanded presidential power into entirely new areas like conservation and consumer protection. How did this change Americans' expectations of what presidents should do?

Theodore Roosevelt's Foreign Policy

Roosevelt believed that foreign policy was the president's main domain and aspired for America to become a key player on the world stage. He frequently acted in international affairs without first informing or gaining consent from Congress, especially after announcing he wouldn't seek re-election and finding his congressional support weakened.

Roosevelt famously followed the slogan "Speak softly and carry a big stick" regarding foreign policy. This approach meant pushing for peace when possible while ensuring other nations were aware of America's military strength. As a former Assistant Secretary to the US Navy, Roosevelt understood naval power's potential and developed what became known as "The Great White Fleet," which embarked on a world tour (1907-1909) to display American might.

Roosevelt's interventionist approach was demonstrated when negotiations with Colombia over the Panama Canal broke down. He backed Panamanian rebels declaring independence, recognized their new government, and used warships to protect Panama's coast. With the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904), he established America as the policeman of both North and Latin America, protecting South American countries from European influence. Perhaps his greatest diplomatic triumph came when he negotiated peace between Russia and Japan, ending the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) and securing him the Nobel Peace Prize – the first American to receive this honour.

Impressive fact: Roosevelt's mediation of the Russo-Japanese War peace treaty at Portsmouth showed how America could shape global events through diplomacy rather than just military power.

Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)

Wilson's first term domestic achievements were substantial. He increased government transparency through regularly scheduled press conferences and broke tradition by personally addressing Congress – something not done for over a century. The Underwood-Simmons Act reduced tariffs on goods like wool, sugar, and food, cutting everyday living costs by 25%. Wilson also reformed banking through the Federal Reserve Act (1913), creating 12 regional reserve banks controlled by a Federal Reserve Board to manage interest rates.

Wilson's social reforms were equally significant. He established a new Department of Labour, provided sailors with more rights through the Seamen's Act, and attempted to eliminate child labour via the Keating-Owen Act (though this was later struck down by the Supreme Court). When railway workers threatened to strike, Wilson secured the Adamson Act (1916), granting them an 8-hour workday, paving the way for shorter hours for all industrial workers.

In foreign affairs, Wilson initially struggled with Mexican policy, refusing to recognize General Victoriano Huerta's government despite Congress's advice. After deploying troops that resulted in casualties on both sides, Wilson ordered a retreat. Though Wilson declared American neutrality when WWI broke out in 1914, he had clear Allied sympathies. His second term saw the implementation of significant constitutional amendments: the 17th (direct election of senators), 18th (prohibition), and the 19th (women's suffrage).

Worth noting: Wilson's approach to addressing Congress personally dramatically changed how presidents communicate their agenda – a practice that continues today with the State of the Union address.

Wilson's War Leadership and Peace Efforts

Wilson initially positioned himself as a peacemaker, advocating for "peace without victory" in early 1917. However, Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare targeting American vessels forced his hand. Despite severing diplomatic connections with Germany in February 1917, Wilson still sought peace until German submarines sank three US merchant ships in March, finally compelling him to declare war on April 2, 1917.

As Commander in Chief, Wilson received extraordinary wartime powers from Congress that no president since Lincoln had wielded. Nearly 3 million men were conscripted, with 2 million Americans deployed to France by summer 1918. The war's conclusion brought Wilson to the international stage at the Treaty of Versailles, where he advocated for his famous "Fourteen Points," including universal disarmament and national self-determination.

Unfortunately, Wilson's peace proposals proved unrealistic. He lacked knowledge of European politics and was perceived as arrogant by Allied leaders. Wilson failed to understand that European nations, which had suffered far more casualties and destruction than America, desired retribution rather than his idealistic solutions. Of his fourteen points, only one survived in the final treaty – the League of Nations – and ironically, Congress later voted against America joining it, dealing Wilson a crushing personal and political defeat.

Consider this: Wilson was the first American president to lead the nation into a global conflict. How did this fundamentally change America's role in world affairs and future presidents' approaches to foreign policy?

Warren G. Harding (1921-1923)

Harding's domestic policies marked a sharp reversal from Wilson's progressive agenda. He approved tax cuts for higher incomes and increased tariffs through the Fordney-McCumber Act (1922). On immigration, Harding supported the Johnson Immigrant Quota Act (1921), which limited immigrants from any country to 3% of the population of the same nationality already in America as of 1910. However, he did support civil liberties for African Americans and liberalized farm credit.

Harding campaigned on a vague promise of a "return to normalcy," though he himself couldn't clearly define what this meant. His administration did establish a unified National Budget through the Budget and Accounting Act (1921), creating a General Accounting Office to monitor government expenditures. In foreign affairs, Harding delegated international responsibilities rather than handling them personally, making him the opposite of Roosevelt and Wilson.

The Harding administration was plagued by scandals. The president frequently appointed friends and political supporters to high-level positions regardless of qualifications. The "Ohio Gang" bought government favours from their headquarters known as the "Little Green House." The most notorious scandal was the Teapot Dome Scandal, where Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall leased oil-rich lands in Wyoming to just two companies after receiving bribes, becoming the first Cabinet member sent to prison.

Shocking fact: In 2015, genetic testing confirmed that Harding had fathered an illegitimate daughter with Nan Britton, validating her claims in her 1927 book "The President's Daughter" that many had previously dismissed as scandalous fiction.

Harding's Scandals and Legacy

When Harding died of a heart attack on August 2, 1923, rumours circulated that his wife had poisoned him. Her refusal to allow an autopsy only fuelled these speculations. Harding's personal life became further tarnished when Nan Britton published "The President's Daughter" in 1927, claiming he had fathered her child while still a Senator – a claim ultimately confirmed by genetic testing in 2015. Love letters later revealed a fifteen-year affair between Harding and Carrie Phillips.

Unlike his predecessors, Harding lacked strong political convictions and a clear vision for America. He left minimal impact on the presidency, proving more self-serving and supportive of big business than reform-minded. His administration was marked by corruption at nearly every level, from the pharmaceutical alcohol license scandal involving Jess Smith to Attorney General Harry Daugherty facing impeachment votes for defrauding the government.

Harding's international policies, while less scandal-ridden than his domestic record, were similarly delegated to others. His administration did play a role in rebuilding post-WWI Europe, established "open doors" trading with Asian nations, and revised Germany's reparations under the Dawes Plan (1923). At the Washington Naval Conference (1921), his Secretary of State, Charles Evan Hughes, successfully negotiated agreements to limit naval armaments among major powers.

Remember: Harding's presidency demonstrates how personal character flaws and poor appointment decisions can undermine an entire administration, regardless of some policy successes.

Calvin "Silent Cal" Coolidge (1923-1929)

Coolidge's presidency embodied conservative economic principles. Despite discussing issues like lynching, child labour, and gender wage disparity in his inaugural address, he took no meaningful steps to address these problems. His economic policy focused on tax reduction through the Revenue Acts of 1924 and 1926, which sharply cut income, gift, excise, and inheritance taxes – a policy that supporters credited with creating the "Coolidge Prosperity."

While urban areas thrived, American agriculture faced crisis. Advanced farming techniques created crop surpluses that lowered prices, and European markets that had needed American food during WWI were no longer buying. Despite this agricultural depression, Coolidge vetoed the McNary-Haugen Bill in 1924, which would have established an Agricultural Export Corporation to purchase surplus produce and sell it abroad.

Most critically, Coolidge did nothing to prevent the looming Great Depression despite early warning signs. He refused to outlaw buying shares "on the margin" (with borrowed money), and when privately warned about a potential stock market crash in 1927, he merely commented that anyone buying shares was a "fool" while publicly reassuring Americans everything was fine. Coolidge firmly believed it wasn't the government's job to intervene in the economy, only to make optimistic statements – a philosophy that would soon prove disastrous.

Think about it: How might the Great Depression have been different if Coolidge had heeded warnings about stock market speculation and taken regulatory action when he had the chance?

Herbert Hoover (1929-1933)

Hoover entered office with promising initiatives, including improving living standards for Native Americans on government reserves and placing nearly two million acres of federal land in the National Forest Reserve. However, his presidency would be defined by his response to the Great Depression, which began with the Wall Street Crash shortly after he took office.

True to his belief in "rugged individualism," Hoover initially called for local and state governments to expand public works while refusing federal assistance. He requested industries to voluntarily pledge not to cut wages or jobs, and asked labour unions not to demand higher wages. In June 1930, despite mounting unemployment, Hoover signed the Smoot-Hawley Act imposing higher tariffs on imported goods – a move that further damaged the global economy.

As conditions worsened, Hoover's reluctant steps toward federal intervention proved inadequate. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation established in 1932 helped larger banks but failed to assist smaller ones. By summer 1932, with one-quarter of factory workers unemployed and 2,200 banks having failed in 1931 alone, Hoover finally conceded that "rugged individualism" couldn't solve the crisis. He passed the Emergency Relief Construction Act providing $2 billion for public works and$300 million for state relief programmes – but it was too little, too late.

Public resentment toward Hoover peaked when he ordered the violent removal of the Bonus Army – WWI veterans seeking early payment of promised bonuses. The resulting deaths of two veterans turned shanty towns of the homeless into "Hoovervilles" in bitter recognition of the president's failures.

Visual image: "Hoovervilles" – makeshift camps of homeless people living in cardboard boxes and scrap materials – sprang up across America, named in bitter mockery of the president many blamed for their suffering.