Natural hazards are extreme events caused by nature that can... Show more
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Responding to change (a2 only)
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Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
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2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
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1
0
jemima
08/12/2025
Geography
GCSE Geography Paper 1
76
•
8 Dec 2025
•
jemima
@jemima_a
Natural hazards are extreme events caused by nature that can... Show more











Ever wondered why the ground shakes during an earthquake or why volcanoes explode with such incredible force? It all comes down to tectonic plates - massive chunks of rock that make up Earth's surface and are constantly moving.
Geological hazards like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions happen when these plates interact at their boundaries. At constructive boundaries, plates move apart and magma rises to create new land, forming shield volcanoes with gentle slopes. At destructive boundaries, oceanic plates get pushed under continental plates, creating composite volcanoes with steep sides and violent eruptions.
The key to surviving these hazards is preparation. Monitoring systems use seismometers to detect ground movement, whilst prediction helps scientists spot warning signs. Protection involves building earthquake-resistant structures and creating evacuation plans.
Quick Tip: Remember the three P's - Prediction, Protection, and Planning. These form the foundation of hazard management worldwide.
Hazard risk depends on several factors including population density, education levels, wealth, and how accessible an area is for emergency services. Wealthier countries typically cope better because they can afford better monitoring systems and stronger buildings.

Mount Merapi in Indonesia and Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland show how volcanic eruptions affect different types of countries. Mount Merapi is a composite volcano that erupted in 2010, killing over 350 people and making 20,000 homeless in this lower-income country.
The primary effects included deadly pyroclastic flows reaching 11km from the volcano, destroyed crops, and contaminated water supplies. Secondary effects were equally devastating - food prices soared, farmers lost income, and overcrowded evacuation centres struggled to cope.
In contrast, Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland caused fewer deaths but created massive international disruption. This fissure volcano released 3,000 tonnes of CO2 daily and grounded over 10,000 flights across Europe for eight days, costing airlines £130 million.
Key Point: Volcanic impacts vary dramatically between rich and poor countries - wealth determines both vulnerability and recovery speed.
Iceland's response was more sophisticated, including financial support for farmers and using technology like drones to improve monitoring systems. They even turned the volcano into a tourist attraction to boost the economy. This shows how preparation and resources dramatically affect a country's ability to manage volcanic hazards.

Tropical storms are nature's most powerful weather systems, and understanding how they form could literally save your life. These massive storms need sea temperatures above 27°C, ocean depths of 60-70m, and specific atmospheric conditions between 5° and 20° north and south of the equator.
The formation process is like a giant heat engine. Warm, moist air rises from the ocean, creating low pressure that draws in surrounding air. As this air rises and cools, it releases huge amounts of energy through condensation, powering the storm to grow bigger and stronger.
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013 with devastating force - wind speeds reached 313km/h and storm surges rose 7 metres high. Over 6,000 people died, and 2 million became homeless. The government's response included evacuating 800,000 people and receiving over £800 million in international aid.
Storm Safety: Early warning systems and evacuation plans are your best defence - modern technology gives us precious time to prepare and escape.
Long-term responses included a £26.2 billion reconstruction plan focusing on resilient infrastructure and new legislation preventing construction in high-risk coastal areas. The Philippines also developed 'PhilAWARE' - an advanced early warning system that monitors all types of hazards.

Think the UK's weather is just boring drizzle? Think again! Extreme weather events are becoming more frequent and intense, affecting millions of people across Britain. From devastating floods to record-breaking heatwaves, our climate is changing rapidly.
Flooding is now the UK's most serious weather hazard. Heavy rainfall overwhelms rivers and drainage systems, especially in areas with lots of impermeable surfaces like concrete and tarmac. The 2004 Boscastle flood showed how quickly disaster can strike - thunderstorms dumped massive amounts of rain, creating a wall of water that destroyed cars, buildings, and livelihoods.
Climate change is making things worse. Since 1962, six of the ten wettest years have occurred since 1998. The Met Office reports that average temperatures have increased by 1°C since 1980, leading to more extreme weather patterns.
Weather Warning: The UK's flood defences face increasing pressure as rainfall patterns become more unpredictable and intense.
Modern flood management combines technology with community action. Warning systems give people time to evacuate, whilst sustainable drainage helps water soak into the ground naturally. The Environment Agency constantly monitors river levels and issues flood alerts through apps, TV, and radio.

Climate change isn't some distant future problem - it's happening right now, and understanding it is crucial for your generation. The greenhouse effect occurs when gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in our atmosphere, gradually warming the planet.
Scientists use clever techniques to study past climates. Dendrochronology (tree ring analysis) shows how growing seasons have changed, whilst ice core analysis reveals CO2 levels from thousands of years ago. Pollen analysis tells us which plants grew in different time periods, building a detailed picture of climate history.
Mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy like wind turbines and solar panels. Carbon capture technology traps CO2 from power stations before it reaches the atmosphere. Afforestation (planting forests) creates natural carbon sinks that absorb CO2.
Climate Action: Every action counts - from choosing renewable energy to supporting reforestation projects, young people are leading the fight against climate change.
Adaptation means adjusting to climate change impacts we can't prevent. This includes building sea walls against rising sea levels, developing drought-resistant crops, and creating better water storage systems. International agreements bring countries together to tackle this global challenge, though progress remains frustratingly slow.

Planet Earth hosts an incredible variety of ecosystems - natural communities where plants, animals, and their environment interact in complex ways. From scorching deserts to frozen tundra, each ecosystem has unique characteristics shaped by latitude, temperature, and rainfall patterns.
Tropical rainforests cluster around the equator where high temperatures and heavy rainfall create ideal growing conditions. These ecosystems support over half the world's species on just 6% of Earth's surface. Temperate grasslands lie between 30-40° north and south, whilst deserts form around 30° latitude where high pressure creates dry conditions.
The distribution of ecosystems depends on global atmospheric circulation. Hot air rises at the equator, creating low pressure and heavy rainfall. This air then sinks at 30° latitude, forming high pressure zones with little rainfall - perfect desert conditions.
Biodiversity Fact: Rainforests produce 40% of our medicines, showing how ecosystem destruction directly threatens human survival.
Latitude is the key factor controlling ecosystem distribution. Areas closer to the equator receive more concentrated solar radiation, supporting diverse ecosystems. Polar regions get less energy, supporting only the hardiest plants and animals. Understanding these patterns helps us predict how climate change will affect different ecosystems.

Malaysia's rainforests are disappearing at an alarming rate - in 2018 alone, 145,000 hectares of primary forest were destroyed. This Southeast Asian country, located around 10°N with two-thirds covered in tropical rainforest, faces one of the world's highest deforestation rates.
Logging drives much of the destruction, with 80% of Borneo's rainforest already gone for timber export. Commercial farming, particularly palm oil plantations, has converted vast forest areas into agricultural land. Malaysia produces huge quantities of palm oil for global markets, from food to cosmetics.
Subsistence farming by indigenous people involves controlled burning to clear small areas, creating nutrient-rich soil. Mineral extraction for oil, gas, and metals pollutes waterways and destroys habitats. Growing populations need space for homes and infrastructure, whilst damming projects flood large forest areas.
Environmental Crisis: Deforestation doesn't just destroy trees - it eliminates entire ecosystems that took millions of years to develop.
The impacts are devastating: soil erosion strips away fertile topsoil, biodiversity loss threatens countless species, and reduced CO2 absorption accelerates climate change. Potential medicines disappear forever, whilst local communities lose their traditional livelihoods and clean water sources.

Protecting rainforests requires balancing economic needs with environmental conservation. Selective logging removes only mature trees, allowing forests to regenerate naturally whilst maintaining habitats and carbon storage. Afforestation schemes replant native species, though recovery takes decades.
Ecotourism provides alternative income for local communities whilst protecting forests as tourist attractions. However, too many visitors can disrupt wildlife, and building hotels and roads creates new environmental pressures.
The tundra represents Earth's harshest ecosystem, found in far northern regions like Arctic Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. Temperatures stay below 0°C most of the year, dropping to -30°C in winter. Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) lies beneath a thin soil layer, creating unique challenges for plants and animals.
Adaptation Marvel: Polar bears have black skin to absorb heat, thick blubber for insulation, and white fur for camouflage - perfect adaptations for survival.
Tundra vegetation includes mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs that can survive extreme conditions. Bear berry plants grow close to the ground to avoid harsh winds, with small leathery leaves that retain water. The ecosystem supports fewer species than warmer regions, but those present are incredibly well-adapted to the brutal environment.

Alaska demonstrates both the value and challenges of cold environments. This vast US state, located 60-70°N, contains enormous mineral wealth including oil, gas, gold, silver, and lead. The trans-Alaskan pipeline stretches 1,300km, employing over 100,000 people in energy production.
Tourism brings 2 million visitors annually, with 60% arriving on cruise ships to see glaciers and wildlife. Fishing contributes £36 billion to the economy through salmon, whitefish, and crab harvesting. These industries provide jobs but create environmental pressures.
Cold environments face unique development challenges: mountainous terrain makes transport difficult, permafrost complicates construction, and extreme temperatures limit working periods. Poor accessibility and small populations increase costs for infrastructure and services.
Conservation Success: The Antarctic Treaty protects an entire continent through international cooperation, showing how countries can work together for environmental protection.
Management strategies include advanced technology like raised pipelines that don't melt permafrost, and specialised equipment that survives earthquakes. International agreements like the Antarctic Treaty and Arctic Council control development and tourism. Government action creates protected areas, whilst conservation groups like WWF support indigenous communities and wildlife protection.

Rivers are incredibly powerful landscape sculptors, constantly reshaping the land through erosion, transportation, and deposition. Understanding these processes helps explain why river valleys look the way they do and how they change over time.
Erosion happens in four main ways: hydraulic action uses water pressure to break up rocks, abrasion occurs when rivers throw stones against riverbanks, attrition rounds pebbles as they collide, and corrosion dissolves minerals through chemical weathering.
Transportation moves eroded material downstream through different methods. Traction rolls large boulders along the riverbed, saltation bounces pebbles and gravel, suspension carries fine particles in the water, and solution dissolves minerals completely.
River Power: A river's ability to erode and transport depends on its discharge (volume of water) and gradient (steepness) - more water and steeper slopes create more powerful rivers.
Rivers change character from source to mouth. The upper course features steep gradients and vertical erosion, creating V-shaped valleys. The middle course develops meanders through lateral erosion. The lower course shows extensive deposition, forming wide floodplains and river deltas where rivers meet the sea.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
Quotes from every main character
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
jemima
@jemima_a
Natural hazards are extreme events caused by nature that can seriously affect people and property. From volcanic eruptions and earthquakes to hurricanes and floods, these events shape our world and challenge human communities in dramatic ways.

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By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Ever wondered why the ground shakes during an earthquake or why volcanoes explode with such incredible force? It all comes down to tectonic plates - massive chunks of rock that make up Earth's surface and are constantly moving.
Geological hazards like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions happen when these plates interact at their boundaries. At constructive boundaries, plates move apart and magma rises to create new land, forming shield volcanoes with gentle slopes. At destructive boundaries, oceanic plates get pushed under continental plates, creating composite volcanoes with steep sides and violent eruptions.
The key to surviving these hazards is preparation. Monitoring systems use seismometers to detect ground movement, whilst prediction helps scientists spot warning signs. Protection involves building earthquake-resistant structures and creating evacuation plans.
Quick Tip: Remember the three P's - Prediction, Protection, and Planning. These form the foundation of hazard management worldwide.
Hazard risk depends on several factors including population density, education levels, wealth, and how accessible an area is for emergency services. Wealthier countries typically cope better because they can afford better monitoring systems and stronger buildings.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Mount Merapi in Indonesia and Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland show how volcanic eruptions affect different types of countries. Mount Merapi is a composite volcano that erupted in 2010, killing over 350 people and making 20,000 homeless in this lower-income country.
The primary effects included deadly pyroclastic flows reaching 11km from the volcano, destroyed crops, and contaminated water supplies. Secondary effects were equally devastating - food prices soared, farmers lost income, and overcrowded evacuation centres struggled to cope.
In contrast, Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland caused fewer deaths but created massive international disruption. This fissure volcano released 3,000 tonnes of CO2 daily and grounded over 10,000 flights across Europe for eight days, costing airlines £130 million.
Key Point: Volcanic impacts vary dramatically between rich and poor countries - wealth determines both vulnerability and recovery speed.
Iceland's response was more sophisticated, including financial support for farmers and using technology like drones to improve monitoring systems. They even turned the volcano into a tourist attraction to boost the economy. This shows how preparation and resources dramatically affect a country's ability to manage volcanic hazards.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
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Tropical storms are nature's most powerful weather systems, and understanding how they form could literally save your life. These massive storms need sea temperatures above 27°C, ocean depths of 60-70m, and specific atmospheric conditions between 5° and 20° north and south of the equator.
The formation process is like a giant heat engine. Warm, moist air rises from the ocean, creating low pressure that draws in surrounding air. As this air rises and cools, it releases huge amounts of energy through condensation, powering the storm to grow bigger and stronger.
Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines in 2013 with devastating force - wind speeds reached 313km/h and storm surges rose 7 metres high. Over 6,000 people died, and 2 million became homeless. The government's response included evacuating 800,000 people and receiving over £800 million in international aid.
Storm Safety: Early warning systems and evacuation plans are your best defence - modern technology gives us precious time to prepare and escape.
Long-term responses included a £26.2 billion reconstruction plan focusing on resilient infrastructure and new legislation preventing construction in high-risk coastal areas. The Philippines also developed 'PhilAWARE' - an advanced early warning system that monitors all types of hazards.

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Improve your grades
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Think the UK's weather is just boring drizzle? Think again! Extreme weather events are becoming more frequent and intense, affecting millions of people across Britain. From devastating floods to record-breaking heatwaves, our climate is changing rapidly.
Flooding is now the UK's most serious weather hazard. Heavy rainfall overwhelms rivers and drainage systems, especially in areas with lots of impermeable surfaces like concrete and tarmac. The 2004 Boscastle flood showed how quickly disaster can strike - thunderstorms dumped massive amounts of rain, creating a wall of water that destroyed cars, buildings, and livelihoods.
Climate change is making things worse. Since 1962, six of the ten wettest years have occurred since 1998. The Met Office reports that average temperatures have increased by 1°C since 1980, leading to more extreme weather patterns.
Weather Warning: The UK's flood defences face increasing pressure as rainfall patterns become more unpredictable and intense.
Modern flood management combines technology with community action. Warning systems give people time to evacuate, whilst sustainable drainage helps water soak into the ground naturally. The Environment Agency constantly monitors river levels and issues flood alerts through apps, TV, and radio.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Climate change isn't some distant future problem - it's happening right now, and understanding it is crucial for your generation. The greenhouse effect occurs when gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in our atmosphere, gradually warming the planet.
Scientists use clever techniques to study past climates. Dendrochronology (tree ring analysis) shows how growing seasons have changed, whilst ice core analysis reveals CO2 levels from thousands of years ago. Pollen analysis tells us which plants grew in different time periods, building a detailed picture of climate history.
Mitigation involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions through renewable energy like wind turbines and solar panels. Carbon capture technology traps CO2 from power stations before it reaches the atmosphere. Afforestation (planting forests) creates natural carbon sinks that absorb CO2.
Climate Action: Every action counts - from choosing renewable energy to supporting reforestation projects, young people are leading the fight against climate change.
Adaptation means adjusting to climate change impacts we can't prevent. This includes building sea walls against rising sea levels, developing drought-resistant crops, and creating better water storage systems. International agreements bring countries together to tackle this global challenge, though progress remains frustratingly slow.

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Improve your grades
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Planet Earth hosts an incredible variety of ecosystems - natural communities where plants, animals, and their environment interact in complex ways. From scorching deserts to frozen tundra, each ecosystem has unique characteristics shaped by latitude, temperature, and rainfall patterns.
Tropical rainforests cluster around the equator where high temperatures and heavy rainfall create ideal growing conditions. These ecosystems support over half the world's species on just 6% of Earth's surface. Temperate grasslands lie between 30-40° north and south, whilst deserts form around 30° latitude where high pressure creates dry conditions.
The distribution of ecosystems depends on global atmospheric circulation. Hot air rises at the equator, creating low pressure and heavy rainfall. This air then sinks at 30° latitude, forming high pressure zones with little rainfall - perfect desert conditions.
Biodiversity Fact: Rainforests produce 40% of our medicines, showing how ecosystem destruction directly threatens human survival.
Latitude is the key factor controlling ecosystem distribution. Areas closer to the equator receive more concentrated solar radiation, supporting diverse ecosystems. Polar regions get less energy, supporting only the hardiest plants and animals. Understanding these patterns helps us predict how climate change will affect different ecosystems.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Malaysia's rainforests are disappearing at an alarming rate - in 2018 alone, 145,000 hectares of primary forest were destroyed. This Southeast Asian country, located around 10°N with two-thirds covered in tropical rainforest, faces one of the world's highest deforestation rates.
Logging drives much of the destruction, with 80% of Borneo's rainforest already gone for timber export. Commercial farming, particularly palm oil plantations, has converted vast forest areas into agricultural land. Malaysia produces huge quantities of palm oil for global markets, from food to cosmetics.
Subsistence farming by indigenous people involves controlled burning to clear small areas, creating nutrient-rich soil. Mineral extraction for oil, gas, and metals pollutes waterways and destroys habitats. Growing populations need space for homes and infrastructure, whilst damming projects flood large forest areas.
Environmental Crisis: Deforestation doesn't just destroy trees - it eliminates entire ecosystems that took millions of years to develop.
The impacts are devastating: soil erosion strips away fertile topsoil, biodiversity loss threatens countless species, and reduced CO2 absorption accelerates climate change. Potential medicines disappear forever, whilst local communities lose their traditional livelihoods and clean water sources.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Protecting rainforests requires balancing economic needs with environmental conservation. Selective logging removes only mature trees, allowing forests to regenerate naturally whilst maintaining habitats and carbon storage. Afforestation schemes replant native species, though recovery takes decades.
Ecotourism provides alternative income for local communities whilst protecting forests as tourist attractions. However, too many visitors can disrupt wildlife, and building hotels and roads creates new environmental pressures.
The tundra represents Earth's harshest ecosystem, found in far northern regions like Arctic Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. Temperatures stay below 0°C most of the year, dropping to -30°C in winter. Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) lies beneath a thin soil layer, creating unique challenges for plants and animals.
Adaptation Marvel: Polar bears have black skin to absorb heat, thick blubber for insulation, and white fur for camouflage - perfect adaptations for survival.
Tundra vegetation includes mosses, lichens, and low-growing shrubs that can survive extreme conditions. Bear berry plants grow close to the ground to avoid harsh winds, with small leathery leaves that retain water. The ecosystem supports fewer species than warmer regions, but those present are incredibly well-adapted to the brutal environment.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Alaska demonstrates both the value and challenges of cold environments. This vast US state, located 60-70°N, contains enormous mineral wealth including oil, gas, gold, silver, and lead. The trans-Alaskan pipeline stretches 1,300km, employing over 100,000 people in energy production.
Tourism brings 2 million visitors annually, with 60% arriving on cruise ships to see glaciers and wildlife. Fishing contributes £36 billion to the economy through salmon, whitefish, and crab harvesting. These industries provide jobs but create environmental pressures.
Cold environments face unique development challenges: mountainous terrain makes transport difficult, permafrost complicates construction, and extreme temperatures limit working periods. Poor accessibility and small populations increase costs for infrastructure and services.
Conservation Success: The Antarctic Treaty protects an entire continent through international cooperation, showing how countries can work together for environmental protection.
Management strategies include advanced technology like raised pipelines that don't melt permafrost, and specialised equipment that survives earthquakes. International agreements like the Antarctic Treaty and Arctic Council control development and tourism. Government action creates protected areas, whilst conservation groups like WWF support indigenous communities and wildlife protection.

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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Rivers are incredibly powerful landscape sculptors, constantly reshaping the land through erosion, transportation, and deposition. Understanding these processes helps explain why river valleys look the way they do and how they change over time.
Erosion happens in four main ways: hydraulic action uses water pressure to break up rocks, abrasion occurs when rivers throw stones against riverbanks, attrition rounds pebbles as they collide, and corrosion dissolves minerals through chemical weathering.
Transportation moves eroded material downstream through different methods. Traction rolls large boulders along the riverbed, saltation bounces pebbles and gravel, suspension carries fine particles in the water, and solution dissolves minerals completely.
River Power: A river's ability to erode and transport depends on its discharge (volume of water) and gradient (steepness) - more water and steeper slopes create more powerful rivers.
Rivers change character from source to mouth. The upper course features steep gradients and vertical erosion, creating V-shaped valleys. The middle course develops meanders through lateral erosion. The lower course shows extensive deposition, forming wide floodplains and river deltas where rivers meet the sea.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
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Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user