Edexcel Geography A: Urban Growth, Development, and Resources

Understanding Cities and Urban Change

You'll need to master several key terms that describe how cities develop. Urbanisation happens when more people move from rural areas to cities, whilst counter-urbanisation is the opposite - people leaving cities for smaller settlements.

Developing countries have low human development, emerging countries have medium to high development, and developed countries have very high human development. These classifications help explain why cities grow differently around the world.

A mega city contains over 10 million people, whilst a major city has at least 400,000 residents. The Human Development Index (HDI) measures a country's progress using life expectancy, education, and income data.

Key Point: Understanding these definitions forms the foundation for analysing urban change patterns globally.

Why Cities Grow: Push and Pull Factors

Cities grow through two main processes that you'll need to explain in exams. Rural to urban migration occurs when people (especially those aged 20-30) move from countryside to cities seeking jobs and better lives. Natural increase happens when birth rates exceed death rates.

Migration results from push factors (negative things driving people away from rural areas) and pull factors (positive attractions drawing people to cities). Think job opportunities, healthcare, and education as major pull factors.

Urbanisation patterns differ globally. In developed countries like the UK, most urbanisation happened during the 19th century Industrial Revolution. Since 1965, this process has slowed significantly.

In emerging and developing countries, urbanisation accelerated after 1950 due to improved healthcare, lower infant mortality rates, and higher life expectancy creating population booms.

Key Point: Always explain both push AND pull factors when discussing migration patterns.

UK Urbanisation and the Burgess Model

The UK's urbanisation story begins with the Industrial Revolution. London grew from 100,000 people in 1801 to becoming a major migration magnet. By 1891, 54% of the population lived in towns and cities.

Physical geography matters. The UK divides along the River Tees and River Exe - northern and western areas have mountains and steep slopes, whilst southern and eastern regions are flatter with better farming conditions.

The Burgess Model explains urban land use patterns you'll see in most British cities. The Central Business District (CBD) contains expensive retail and commercial buildings that are tall to maximise space. Moving outward, you'll find inner city areas with terraced housing, then inner suburbs with semi-detached homes, and finally outer suburbs with detached houses and large gardens.

Land prices decrease as you move away from the city centre, whilst open space increases.

Key Point: Learn the Burgess Model thoroughly - it appears frequently in exam questions about urban structure.

Birmingham Case Study: Urban Evolution

Birmingham perfectly demonstrates how cities evolve through different phases. During urbanisation (18th-19th centuries), the city grew rapidly around jewellery, gun, and brass manufacturing, with new estates like Small Heath built quickly for rural migrants.

Suburbanisation occurred in the 1920s-1930s when Birmingham expanded outward. Large council and private estates featured semi-detached houses on spacious land with tree-lined roads, though they initially lacked shops and clinics.

Counter-urbanisation happened when five Comprehensive Development Areas demolished old 19th-century housing, forcing people to move to edge-of-city estates.

Finally, re-urbanisation brought people back through apartment developments near canals and converted factories. The CBD and inner areas underwent major redevelopment with refurbished tower blocks and new centres.

Key Point: Birmingham shows all four urban processes - use it as your go-to example for explaining urban change over time.

Migration and Cultural Change in Birmingham

Birmingham's ethnic diversity creates both opportunities and challenges. Sparkbrook demonstrates this clearly - it's 61.4% Asian/Asian British compared to Birmingham overall (26.6%) and England (7.8%).

International migration occurred in waves. The 1950s brought workers to fill labour shortages, the 2000s attracted young immigrants seeking better jobs and living standards, and 2012-2015 saw refugees fleeing conflicts.

Positive impacts include cultural diversity creating vibrant communities, economic boosts, new food cultures, skilled workers, and better cultural understanding. Places of worship and specialist shops opened to serve diverse communities.

Negative impacts involve potential disease transmission, crime increases, overcrowding pressuring transport and housing, NHS strain, school capacity issues, language barriers, and unfortunately, racism.

Solutions include background checks, disease screening, language assistance programs, evening classes for adults, more housing and schools, improved public transport, and multilingual information leaflets.

Key Point: Always present balanced arguments showing both positive and negative impacts of migration.

Deindustrialisation and Its Consequences

Deindustrialisation - the decline of traditional industries - hit Birmingham hard. Globalisation meant Birmingham's car and motorcycle industries couldn't compete with cheaper Japanese and Western European imports during the 1970s.

Decentralisation saw factories close and move out as inner city areas were redeveloped. Many industrial sites became luxury apartments. Technological advances left older factories behind - firms using outdated technology went out of business.

Transport developments like Birmingham's inner ring road construction in the 1970s demolished older factories, warehouses, and houses. Many factories never reopened, whilst others relocated elsewhere.

The impacts were severe: widespread unemployment, need for worker retraining, large-scale land pollution from metal smelting, and numerous brownfield sites with empty industrial buildings.

Key Point: Deindustrialisation creates both problems (unemployment) and opportunities (redevelopment sites).

Urban Inequalities and Deprivation

Urban inequality means different people experience vastly different living standards within the same city. The Index of Multiple Deprivation measures this using seven categories: income, employment, health, education, crime, access to services, and living environment.

Birmingham's inner city areas face significant disadvantage with high unemployment, poor schools, and inadequate health provision. Inequality persists because many jobs are part-time and low-paid, few local factories provide employment (forcing expensive travel), racial discrimination affects newcomers, and older housing stock causes health problems.

Sutton Coldfield (suburbs) enjoys low crime rates, high purchasing power, diverse shops, minimal pollution, abundant green space, and excellent quality of life. Sparkbrook (inner city) has specialist shops and cultural diversity but faces crime concerns, air pollution, and less green space.

Both areas maintain relatively good quality of life, but clear differences exist in opportunities and environmental conditions.

Key Point: Use specific examples like Sutton Coldfield vs Sparkbrook to illustrate urban inequality patterns.

Retail Evolution and Online Shopping

Birmingham's retail landscape transformed dramatically over decades. The 1960s Bullring was built quickly after WWII bombing using concrete - fast but poor quality. Merryhill shopping centre (1980s) offered convenient location, transport links, and expansion potential.

Today's Bullring redevelopment features futuristic buildings, modernised shopping centres, and improved safety. This sparked re-urbanisation with new apartments, bigger shops, and increased popularity.

Modern shopping centres succeed because they offer free parking, covered walkways, heating, attractive environments, motorway access, public transport links, leisure facilities, brand names, restaurants, and cinemas.

Internet shopping rose since the late 1990s, reducing CBD footfall. Benefits include 24-hour access, special discounts, convenience, product variety, lower prices, elderly accessibility, and no transport costs. Retailers benefit from more customers, reduced costs, and better advertising opportunities.

However, traditional shops suffer from decreased footfall as online shopping grows.

Key Point: Understand how retail changes reflect broader urban transformation processes.

Sustainable Urban Development

Sustainability means meeting today's needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs. Birmingham implements various strategies to improve quality of life sustainably.

Recycling initiatives tackle the 30 tonnes of household waste produced annually. Three-bin systems with different colours prevent vermin problems, supported by a £30 million grant.

Employment programs create 1000 new jobs through city development, housing, and community projects. Education improvements involve building new schools and enhancing teaching quality.

Health initiatives include rapid response home treatment teams and employing more GPs, especially in deprived areas like Sparkbrook.

Transport sustainability aims to reduce the 1.4 million daily car journeys through solar/electric buses, trams, and safe cycle routes, cutting carbon emissions and congestion.

Housing investments focus on energy-efficient measures and new homes. Community centres like Balsall Heath Sparkbrook provide meeting places and support services for all community sections.

Key Point: Sustainable development requires integrated approaches addressing multiple urban challenges simultaneously.

Mexico City: Emerging World Urbanisation

Mexico represents an emerging country with per capita income below $4035 and rapid but volatile economic growth. Mexico's 2017 growth rate (+2.7%) exceeded the UK's (+1.5%), but volatility includes earthquakes and drug cartel violence.

Mexico City faces unique challenges as the world's largest urban area. The city sinks due to unstable ground, houses over 22 million people in a space surrounded by high mountains, and suffers severe water supply problems exacerbated by climate change.

The Latin American city model differs from UK patterns. The Periférico (outskirts) contains slums and shanty towns. Industrial parks provide jobs but are often illegal. The zone of maturity houses middle-class residents, whilst the zone of disamenity suffers from gang control and drug lord influence.

Commercial/elite areas occupy the city centre with banks, government offices, and company headquarters forming a spine of retail and markets.

Environmental problems include air pollution trapped by mountains, earthquake risks causing liquefaction, and inadequate infrastructure struggling with rapid population growth from 3 million (1950) to over 22 million today.

Key Point: Mexico City demonstrates how emerging world cities face different challenges than developed world urban areas.