WJEC Unit 2 Comprehensive Notes (AC 1-4) - Exam Study Guide

Understanding Society's Rules

Think about saying "please" and "thank you" - these might seem like tiny details, but they're actually part of a complex system that keeps society functioning. Norms are the expected behaviours we follow in daily life, whilst values are the deeper principles about what's right and wrong that guide these behaviours.

Mores represent society's most crucial moral rules - the ones that maintain civilised behaviour. Meanwhile, moral codes are formal sets of rules that guide specific groups, like the Police Code of Ethics or the Hippocratic Oath that doctors follow.

Not all rule-breaking is criminal though. Deviance simply means behaviour that differs from normal, and it comes in three types: unusual and good (like performing CPR), unusual and bizarre (face tattoos), and bad or disapproved of (fighting). Society uses sanctions - both formal punishments from official bodies and informal disapproval from others - to encourage conformity.

Key Point: Understanding the difference between deviance and crime is crucial for your exams - all crimes are deviant, but not all deviant behaviour is criminal.

Criminal behaviour requires two legal elements: actus reus (the guilty act) and mens rea (the guilty mind). However, some strict liability offences don't need mens rea - like serving alcohol to minors - because protecting society is deemed more important than proving intent.

Types of Crime and Social Construction

The legal system categorises offences into summary offences (less serious, tried in Magistrates Court) and indictable offences (serious crimes like murder, tried in Crown Court). Punishments range from custodial sentences and community orders to police cautions and occupational exclusions.

Here's where it gets interesting: what counts as "criminal" isn't fixed. The social construction of criminality means that perceptions of crime vary dramatically across cultures, over time, and according to circumstances.

Polygamy perfectly illustrates cultural differences - it's legal in 58 countries but banned in most Western nations. This variation stems from religious beliefs (the Qur'an permits Muslim men up to four wives) and traditional practices. Similarly, adultery laws differ based on religious influence and women's social status in different societies.

Homosexuality laws show the starkest cultural divide. Whilst legal across Europe and the Americas, male homosexuality remains illegal in 72 countries, often due to religious opposition, public opinion, or sexist assumptions about female sexuality.

Remember: These examples show that crime isn't absolute - it's shaped by society's values and beliefs.

Even cannabis laws vary wildly, from Portugal's decriminalised personal use to Canada's legal medical supply, reflecting different approaches to individual freedom and drug control strategies.

How Laws Change Over Time

Laws aren't set in stone - they evolve as society's attitudes shift. Homosexuality in the UK demonstrates this perfectly: completely illegal until 1967, then gradually liberalised until full equality in 2000.

The Wolfenden Report kickstarted change after increased prosecutions of gay men post-WWII. Campaigns by the Homosexual Law Reform Society, supportive politicians, and human rights arguments eventually transformed the legal landscape completely.

Portugal's drug laws show how crisis can drive reform. Facing Europe's highest heroin addiction rates by 1999, Portugal decriminalised possession in 2001, treating it as a civil rather than criminal matter. This pragmatic approach reduced costs and focused on rehabilitation over punishment.

Gun control laws in the UK changed rapidly following tragedies. The Hungerford shooting (1987) and Dunblane massacre (1996) sparked massive public outcry, leading to comprehensive handgun bans by 1997. The Snowdrop Campaign alone gathered 750,000 signatures from bereaved families and supporters.

Exam Tip: Learn these specific examples and dates - they're perfect for demonstrating how social attitudes drive legal change.

Physical punishment reflects evolving views on human rights. Capital punishment ended in 1965, corporal punishment in schools was banned by 1999, yet parents can still legally smack children under current restrictions.

When Laws Apply Differently

Sometimes identical crimes receive different treatment - this is differential law enforcement. It happens during moral panics (like the 2011 London riots) when society feels threatened and courts impose harsher sentences as deterrents.

Typifications show how stereotypes affect policing. Chambliss's study revealed police treated middle-class "saints" more leniently than working-class "roughnecks" for similar behaviour. Research by Cicourel and Piliavin found that class, ethnicity, age, and attitude toward police significantly influenced stop-and-search decisions.

Age dramatically affects criminal responsibility. Under-10s cannot be charged regardless of their actions, whilst 10-17 year olds face Youth Courts with limited sentencing powers. Only adults face full prison sentences.

Homicide defences show how circumstances matter. Loss of control, diminished responsibility due to medical conditions, or automatism (involuntary acts) can reduce murder charges to manslaughter or provide complete defences.

Think About It: These examples reveal that justice isn't always blind - social factors heavily influence how laws are applied.

This flexibility reflects society's recognition that identical acts can have vastly different meanings depending on context, age, and circumstances.

Are Criminals Born Different?

Biological theories suggest criminals are physically distinct from law-abiding citizens. Cesare Lombroso, the first to study criminality scientifically, believed criminals were "atavistic" - evolutionary throwbacks with primitive features like enormous jaws and long arms.

Whilst Lombroso pioneered objective criminal study and later included social factors, his research had major flaws. He failed to use control groups, and his theories were racist, equating non-Western societies with criminals.

William Sheldon focused on body types, identifying three categories: muscular mesomorphs (aggressive and risk-taking), thin ectomorphs (introverted), and soft endomorphs (outgoing). He argued mesomorphs were naturally drawn to crime due to their physical advantages and adventurous nature.

Some research supports this - studies found 60% of offenders were mesomorphs. However, criminality might cause the muscular build rather than result from it, and the theory can't explain crimes committed by other body types.

Critical Thinking: While these theories seem logical, remember that correlation doesn't equal causation.

These physiological theories were groundbreaking for their scientific approach but ultimately failed to prove that physical appearance determines criminal behaviour. They did, however, establish the importance of systematic criminal research.

Genes and Crime

Genetic theories propose that criminality runs in families through DNA. Twin studies compare identical twins (sharing 100% DNA) with non-identical twins to test this theory.

Research shows promising patterns: Christiansen found 52% concordance for identical twins versus 22% for non-identical twins. Ishikawa and Raine reported similar results (44% versus 21%). If genetics were everything, identical twins should show 100% concordance - they don't.

Adoption studies separate nature from nurture by comparing adopted children to both biological and adoptive parents. Mendick found sons were 20% more likely to have criminal records if their birth parents did, compared to 14.7% if adoptive parents did.

Jacob's XYY study examined men with an extra Y chromosome. These "supermale" individuals showed explosive tempers, hyperactivity, and antisocial tendencies. Prison studies found XYY syndrome in 7 out of 196 inmates - much higher than the general population rate of 1 in 1000.

However, this could reflect bias rather than causation. XYY individuals might be over-represented in prison due to lower intelligence making them easier to catch, and they fit typical "offender" stereotypes.

Key Insight: Genetic factors might contribute to criminality, but they're not destiny - environment clearly plays a crucial role too.

These studies suggest heredity influences criminal behaviour, but environmental factors remain equally important in determining outcomes.

Brain Injuries and Biochemical Factors

Sometimes brain damage directly causes criminal behaviour. Phineas Gage's famous case perfectly illustrates this - after a metal pole pierced his skull, destroying his frontal lobes, his personality completely changed from friendly to aggressive and inappropriate.

Gage's case supported localisation theory - that different brain parts control specific functions. Damage to frontal lobes particularly affects impulse control, risk assessment, and rule compliance. Prisoners statistically have higher rates of brain injury than the general population.

However, brain-injury-related crimes remain rare, and prisoners' injuries might result from their criminal lifestyle (fights, accidents) rather than cause it.

Biochemical factors also influence behaviour. Testosterone peaks coincide with highest male crime rates, and it's linked to violent offences. Ellis and Coontz demonstrated this age-related pattern clearly.

Female hormones affect behaviour too - premenstrual tension, postnatal depression, and lactation are accepted as partial legal defences for crimes like shoplifting and infanticide, recognising their impact on mood and judgement.

Substance abuse triggers criminal behaviour through disinhibition. Saunders found alcohol involved in 1000 daily arrests, whilst Flanzer reported it in 80% of US family violence cases.

Real-World Application: Courts increasingly recognise biological factors in sentencing, balancing personal responsibility with medical understanding.

These biological influences are significant but usually require environmental triggers to produce criminal behaviour.

The Criminal Mind

Individualistic theories focus on psychological rather than biological causes of crime. Psychodynamic theories suggest criminality results from unresolved inner conflicts during childhood development.

Freud's psychoanalysis identifies three personality elements: the id (pleasure-seeking instincts), superego (conscience and morality), and ego (balancing both). Criminal behaviour stems from superego problems.

A weak superego creates individuals who feel little guilt about antisocial actions. A harsh superego causes excessive guilt, leading people to commit crimes seeking punishment. A deviant superego develops in criminal families where pro-crime attitudes are normal.

Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory argues that children need continuous care until age five. His "44 thieves" study found that maternal deprivation led to "affectionless psychopathy" - lack of remorse and disregard for right and wrong.

Eysenck's personality theory measured criminal personality using three dimensions: extraversion vs introversion (E), neuroticism vs emotional stability (N), and later psychoticism (P). High scores on all three correlated with criminal behaviour.

Study Tip: Remember these personality theories explain how early experiences and individual differences might predispose people to crime.

These psychological approaches highlight family structure and childhood socialisation's importance, though they can't explain why some people with similar backgrounds don't become criminals.

Learning Criminal Behaviour

Learning theories propose that criminal behaviour is acquired through social interaction and experience, not inherited or predetermined.

Sutherland's differential association theory argues people learn criminality through exposure to pro-crime attitudes. This happens via learned attitudes (internalising values about law-breaking through socialisation) and imitation (copying criminal techniques from others).

Farrington's research supports this - crime ran in families among 45% of 411 London families involved in antisocial behaviour. However, not everyone exposed to criminal influences becomes criminal, and measuring "exposure to pro-crime attitudes" proves difficult.

Operant conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, suggests behaviour is shaped by consequences. If crime brings rewards (money, status, excitement) rather than punishment, it's likely to be repeated. This explains why some people persist in criminal behaviour despite occasional arrests.

The theory makes logical sense - we learn from consequences throughout life. It's scientifically testable and offers objective explanations for behavioural change. However, it relies heavily on animal research, which may not adequately model complex human criminal behaviour.

Think Critically: These theories suggest crime is learned like any other behaviour - through social interaction and reinforcement patterns.

Learning theories are particularly useful for understanding repeat offending and why crime often concentrates in specific communities or families, as attitudes and techniques get passed down through social networks.

Bringing It All Together

These diverse theories each offer valuable insights into criminal behaviour, though none provides a complete explanation on its own. Biological theories highlight how physical factors might predispose individuals to criminality, whilst psychological theories emphasise personality development and mental processes.

Learning theories demonstrate crime's social nature - how criminal behaviour spreads through communities and families via socialisation and reinforcement. Social construction shows that crime itself is defined by society's values and changes over time.

The reality is that criminal behaviour likely results from complex interactions between biological predispositions, psychological development, social learning, and situational factors. Some individuals might be more vulnerable due to genetic or brain-related factors, but environmental influences usually determine whether this potential becomes reality.

Understanding these theories helps explain why crime prevention requires multiple approaches - from early childhood intervention and family support to community programmes and individual treatment. No single solution works because crime has multiple causes.

Exam Success: Remember that evaluation is key - always discuss both strengths and limitations of each theory, and consider how they might work together rather than compete.

This comprehensive understanding prepares you to analyse real criminal cases and evaluate different approaches to reducing crime in society.