Exploring Criminology: Unit 2 Overview

Understanding Crime and Deviance

You've probably wondered what makes something truly "criminal" versus just being a bit weird or unusual. Deviance covers all sorts of behaviour that stands out from the norm - from heroic acts like saving someone's life, to eccentric habits like talking to trees, to genuinely harmful actions like unprovoked violence.

Criminal behaviour has two main definitions that work together. The legal definition is straightforward: anything forbidden by criminal law, usually requiring both a guilty act (actus reus) and guilty mind (mens rea). The social definition is more complex, considering what different groups think should be illegal and whether laws are actually enforced.

When someone breaks the law, they face formal sanctions that range from police cautions for minor offences to prison sentences for serious crimes. Community sentences offer alternatives to jail time, whilst criminal convictions can have lasting effects on employment, travel, and other life opportunities.

Key insight: Remember that not all crimes are deviant, not all deviant acts are crimes, but some acts are both criminal and deviant - this overlap is crucial for understanding how society controls behaviour.

How Culture Shapes Crime

What's perfectly legal in one country might land you in prison in another - that's the social construction of criminality at work. Take polygamy, which is legal in certain Muslim countries but banned in most Western nations due to religious and traditional differences.

Homosexuality shows even starker cultural divides. Whilst it's legal across Europe and the Americas, 75 countries still criminalise male homosexuality, often reflecting religious beliefs or public attitudes about sexuality. Interestingly, fewer countries ban lesbian activity, possibly due to sexist assumptions about women's sexuality.

Cannabis laws vary wildly worldwide, from full legalisation in some Canadian provinces to harsh penalties elsewhere. These differences stem from contrasting views on personal freedom, public health approaches, and whether cannabis acts as a gateway drug.

Adultery remains illegal in many Muslim countries and some US states, largely influenced by religious teachings and women's social position. Meanwhile, most Western countries treat it as a personal matter rather than a criminal one.

Cultural reminder: Crime and deviance are socially constructed - they vary dramatically by culture, reflecting different values, religions, and social norms rather than universal truths.

How Crime Changes Over Time

Laws aren't set in stone - they evolve as society's attitudes shift. Homosexuality provides a perfect example: criminalised in 1885, it was gradually legalised starting in 1967, thanks to campaigns by reform groups and politicians like Roy Jenkins who believed the state shouldn't control private lives.

Capital and corporal punishment have largely disappeared from the UK. The death penalty was abolished in 1965 due to human rights concerns, wrongful convictions, and evidence it doesn't deter crime. Physical punishments like flogging ended in 1967 as society became more "civilised."

Gun control laws tightened dramatically after tragic shootings at Hungerford (1987) and Dunblane (1996). The Snowdrop campaign, started by bereaved parents, collected 750,000 signatures demanding change - showing how public pressure can reshape laws.

Portugal's approach to drug laws transformed after 1975's democratic revolution. Facing a massive addiction crisis, they decriminalised possession in 2001, treating it as a public health issue rather than a criminal matter - and saw an 18% reduction in drug-related costs.

Children's rights have evolved dramatically. Once treated as small adults who could work and face adult punishments, children now enjoy special protections through separate courts, compulsory education, and welfare-focused policies that prioritise their wellbeing.

Time matters: Laws change as society's values evolve - what was acceptable centuries ago might horrify us today, whilst current laws may seem outdated to future generations.

When Laws Apply Differently

Even identical crimes don't always receive identical treatment - differential enforcement means circumstances matter enormously. During the 2011 London riots, minor offences suddenly attracted much harsher sentences than usual, showing how context influences punishment.

Police typifications - their mental images of "typical criminals" - significantly affect who gets arrested. Studies by Chambliss showed middle-class "Saints" received gentler treatment than working-class "Roughnecks" for similar behaviour, whilst Cicourel found working-class youth faced more suspicion and arrests.

The age of criminal responsibility recognises that young children can't fully understand their actions' consequences. Set at 10 in England and Wales (12 in Scotland), it means younger children can't be held criminally responsible. Youth courts handle under-18s more informally and can't impose prison sentences.

Homicide laws show how circumstances transform the same act - killing someone - into different crimes. Murder requires intent, whilst manslaughter doesn't. Special defences like diminished responsibility or loss of control can reduce murder charges, recognising that mental state and circumstances affect moral and legal responsibility.

Justice reality check: The law isn't applied like a mathematical formula - police discretion, social class, age, and specific circumstances all influence whether someone gets arrested, charged, and how severely they're punished.

Born Criminal? Biological Theories

Could your facial features predict criminal behaviour? Lombroso thought so, measuring prisoners' heads and claiming criminals had distinctive physical traits like large jaws and long arms. He believed criminals were evolutionary throwbacks - atavistic beings who were naturally impulsive and anti-social.

Sheldon's body types theory linked criminality to physique. He identified three somatotypes: rounded endomorphs, thin ectomorphs, and muscular mesomorphs. His research suggested mesomorphs were most likely to be criminal, possibly because their assertiveness and physical strength gave them advantages in criminal activities.

Both theories attempted scientific approaches to understanding crime but suffered major flaws. Lombroso never used control groups of non-criminals for comparison, whilst Sheldon's findings might reflect social bias - mesomorphs could simply be more likely to get labelled as criminals or turn to crime due to social class factors.

These physiological theories launched the scientific study of criminality and highlighted the importance of detailed criminal records. However, they've been criticised as racist for equating criminals with "primitive" peoples and failing to account for the social construction of crime.

Scientific caution: Whilst these early theories broke new ground in studying crime scientifically, they remind us that physical appearance doesn't determine behaviour - social and environmental factors play crucial roles too.

Genes and Crime

Could criminality run in families through genetic inheritance? Twin and adoption studies try to answer this by separating nature from nurture. Monozygotic twins (identical) share 100% of genes, whilst dizygotic twins (non-identical) share only 50% - like regular siblings.

Christiansen's twin study found 52% concordance for criminality in identical twins versus 22% in non-identical twins, suggesting genetic influence. Adoption studies by Mednick showed adoptees' criminality matched biological parents (20%) more than adoptive parents (14.7%), again pointing to genetic factors.

Jacob's XYY study examined "super-males" with an extra Y chromosome. These men tend to be tall, well-built, have lower intelligence and higher aggression. Researchers found higher rates of XYY syndrome among violent prisoners, suggesting a genetic predisposition to crime.

However, these findings aren't conclusive. If crime were purely genetic, identical twins would have 100% concordance, not 52%. XYY syndrome is too rare to explain much crime, and those affected might just fit stereotypes that make them more likely to be caught and labelled as criminals.

Nature vs nurture: Genetic studies suggest biology might influence criminal behaviour, but environmental factors remain crucial - having certain genes doesn't guarantee someone will become a criminal.

Brain Chemistry and Crime

Brain injuries can dramatically alter personality and behaviour. The famous case of Phineas Gage, who survived a metal rod through his brain but emerged with a completely changed personality, demonstrates how physical brain damage can affect behaviour.

Biochemical explanations focus on hormones and blood chemistry. Testosterone peaks during teens and early twenties - exactly when crime rates are highest. This male hormone links to aggression, murder, and rape. For women, PMT, post-natal depression, and other hormonal fluctuations have been used as legal defences, affecting mood and self-control.

Blood sugar levels (hypoglycaemia) connect to aggression, whilst substance abuse clearly links to criminal behaviour through increased aggression and poor decision-making. Even dietary factors like lead exposure or vitamin B deficiency can affect behaviour.

The courts recognise some biochemical factors as legitimate defences, showing scientific acceptance. However, these explanations have limitations - brain injuries causing crime are rare, and biochemical processes often need environmental triggers to result in criminal behaviour.

Bio-social interaction: Whilst brain chemistry and injuries can influence behaviour, they typically work alongside environmental factors rather than single-handedly causing crime - biology provides potential, environment provides triggers.

The Criminal Mind: Psychological Theories

Freud's psychoanalysis suggests your early childhood experiences shape your entire personality, including any criminal tendencies. He believed our minds contain three conflicting parts: the impulsive id, rational ego, and moral superego. Criminal behaviour results from unresolved conflicts between these elements, often caused by harsh, neglectful, or overly lenient parenting.

Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory focuses specifically on the mother-child relationship. He argued children need continuous attachment to a primary carer from birth to age five. If this bond breaks - even temporarily - it can lead to "affectionless psychopathy" and criminal behaviour later in life.

Bowlby's evidence came from studying 44 juvenile thieves at a child guidance clinic. He found 39% had suffered maternal deprivation before age five, compared to just 5% of non-delinquent children. This suggested early separation from mothers significantly increased criminal risk.

These psychodynamic theories emphasise how unconscious childhood experiences drive adult behaviour. They've influenced modern understanding of child development and the importance of early intervention, though they're difficult to test scientifically and may oversimplify complex criminal behaviour.

Early influence matters: These theories highlight how crucial early childhood relationships are for healthy development, though modern research shows resilience and recovery are possible even after difficult starts.

Personality and Crime

Could your personality type predict criminal behaviour? Eysenck's theory suggests criminals have specific personality combinations: high extraversion (outgoing, excitement-seeking), high neuroticism (anxious, moody), and high psychoticism (cruel, insensitive, aggressive).

Extraverts have nervous systems requiring high stimulation, so they constantly seek excitement through rule-breaking and impulsive behaviour. Neurotics struggle with conditioning - their high anxiety prevents them from learning properly from punishment, making them harder to socialise into following society's rules.

People scoring high on psychoticism tend to be solitary misfits who lack empathy and may have serious mental illnesses like schizophrenia. This combination creates individuals more likely to engage in criminal behaviour without feeling guilt or learning from consequences.

Research shows some correlation between these personality traits and criminality, with prisoners often scoring higher on E, P, and N measures. However, this doesn't prove personality causes crime - convicted offenders might not represent all criminals, and people can lie on personality questionnaires.

Personality puzzle: Whilst certain personality traits may increase criminal risk, remember that correlation doesn't equal causation - environmental factors and personal choices still play crucial roles in determining behaviour.

Learning to be Criminal

Crime might be something we learn rather than inherit. Sutherland's differential association theory argues criminality results from imitation and learned attitudes within groups that favour law-breaking. His workplace studies showed how group attitudes can normalise criminal behaviour - "everyone else is doing it" becomes justification.

Skinner's operant learning theory applies behaviourism to crime. If criminal behaviour gets rewarded (money, status, excitement), it gets repeated. Jeffrey's differential reinforcement theory suggests crime must offer more rewards than punishments for criminals, explaining why some people persist despite legal consequences.

Bandura's social learning theory emphasises learning through observing models - especially high-status people who get rewarded for their behaviour. His famous Bobo doll study showed children were most likely to imitate violent adults when they saw them being rewarded for aggression.

These theories explain why crime often runs in families and peer groups - we naturally copy behaviour we see succeeding around us. However, they're somewhat deterministic, potentially ignoring human free will and the fact that many people exposed to criminal influences don't become criminals themselves.

Social learning reality: Whilst we definitely learn from those around us, these theories remind us that changing someone's social environment and role models could be key to preventing criminal behaviour.