Theories on Gender and Crime

This page examines contrasting theories about why official statistics show such large gender differences in crime rates and how the criminal justice system treats male and female offenders.

The chivalry thesis, proposed by Pollak in 1950, argues that women receive more lenient treatment in the criminal justice system. This theory suggests that because men, who make up most of the CJS, are socialized to be protective of women, female offenders may be less likely to be prosecuted or may receive lighter sentences.

Definition: Chivalry thesis - The idea that women receive more lenient treatment in the criminal justice system due to protective attitudes from men.

Some studies provide evidence supporting this view:

• Graham & Bowling (1995) found self-reported offending showed smaller gender gaps than official statistics.
• Flood-Page et al (2000) found female offenders were less likely to be cautioned or prosecuted than males.
• Court statistics show females are more likely to get bail or non-custodial sentences.

However, the chivalry thesis is contested. The double deviance thesis argues women may actually be treated more harshly for violating both legal and gender norms. Other research challenges the idea of widespread female offenders leniency in the criminal justice system:

• Self-report studies still show higher male offending across offense categories (Hales et al, 2009).
• Many crimes against women go unreported, like domestic violence (Yearnshire, 1997).
• There may be gendered double standards in how youth behavior is viewed (Sharpe, 2009).

Quote: "Magistrates' view of female defendants is based on stereotypical gender roles, not their actual offence." - Stewart (2006)

Explaining Gender Differences in Crime Rates

This page explores two contrasting sociological theories that attempt to explain the persistent gender differences in crime statistics in England and other countries.

Control Theory

Heidensohn's (1996) control theory argues that women's lower crime rates stem from their subordinate position in a patriarchal society. This theory suggests women's behavior is more controlled and conformist due to:

1. Control at home - Domestic responsibilities limit opportunities to offend
2. Control in public - Fear of male violence restricts movement and access to crime opportunities
3. Control at work - Male-dominated workplaces limit access to white-collar crime opportunities

Highlight: Control theory links women's lower offending rates to patriarchal social control in various spheres of life.

While this theory explains how patriarchal control may prevent female deviance, it has been criticized for ignoring women's agency in choosing to offend or not.

Liberation Thesis

In contrast, Adler's (1975) liberation thesis argues that women's crime rates are rising as they become more liberated from patriarchal constraints. This theory suggests:

• Increased work and education opportunities give women access to new "illegitimate opportunity structures"
• Women are now committing more diverse types of crime, including traditionally "male" offenses

Example: The rise in female offending rates and shift to crimes like embezzlement in the latter 20th century is cited as evidence for this theory.

However, the liberation thesis has faced several criticisms:

• Female crime rates were rising before the women's liberation movement
• Many female offenders are from working-class backgrounds least affected by liberation
• Women in criminal groups like gangs often still conform to traditional gender roles

Vocabulary: Illegitimate opportunity structures - Situations or contexts that provide opportunities for criminal behavior

Recent Trends and Debates

This page examines more recent trends in female offending and victimization, as well as ongoing debates about the interpretation of crime statistics.

Females and Violent Crime

Hand & Dodd (2009) found that between 2000-2008, female arrests for violence rose by 17% per year in England and Wales. On the surface, this appears to support the liberation thesis that female crime is increasing as women gain more social freedom.

The Criminalization of Females

However, the rise in arrests doesn't necessarily mean there has been an equivalent rise in actual violent offending by women. Victim surveys don't report a corresponding increase in attacks by females. This discrepancy has led to the concept of "net-widening":

Definition: Net-widening - The process where the criminal justice system begins to arrest and prosecute individuals for less serious offenses than before, thus "widening the net" of criminalization.

The apparent rise in female violent crime may reflect changes in how the justice system responds to female behavior rather than an actual increase in violence. Some argue this represents a moral panic about girls' behavior, fueled by media depictions of young women as drunk, disorderly, and out of control.

Gender and Victimization

While much of the focus is on offending, it's also important to consider gender differences in victimization:

• In homicides, 70% of victims are men
• Female victims are more likely to be killed by partners or ex-partners

This highlights the complex interplay between gender, offending, and victimization in understanding crime patterns.

Highlight: Recent increases in female arrests may reflect changing enforcement practices rather than increased female offending, challenging simplistic interpretations of crime statistics.

Page 5: Modern Trends in Female Crime

This page discusses contemporary trends in female violent crime and victimization patterns. It examines the apparent rise in female arrests for violence and questions whether this represents a genuine increase in female criminality or changes in law enforcement approaches.

Definition: Net-widening refers to the process where more actions become criminalized or subject to criminal justice intervention.

Highlight: The increase in female arrests may reflect changed enforcement practices rather than increased criminal behavior.

Example: Media depictions of female criminals often focus on drunk and disorderly behavior, potentially creating a moral panic about women's conduct.

Gender and Crime Statistics

This page presents key statistics on gender differences in criminal offending and convictions in England and Wales.

Males make up about 75% of convicted offenders in England and Wales. By age 40, 32% of males have a conviction compared to only 9% of females, highlighting the significant gender differences in crime statistics in England. However, some sociologists and criminologists argue that official statistics may underestimate the amount of female crime.

There are also differences in the types of crimes committed. A higher proportion of women are convicted of property crimes like burglary, while males are more likely to be convicted of violent or sexual offenses. Males also tend to be repeat offenders with longer criminal records.

Highlight: Official statistics show large gender gaps in offending, but some argue female crime is underestimated.

Example: 'Female' crimes like shoplifting may be less likely to be reported or noticed compared to male violence.

Some claim that even when women's crimes are reported, they may be less likely to be prosecuted or may receive more lenient treatment, pointing to potential female offenders leniency in the criminal justice system. However, this is debated by scholars.

Vocabulary: CJS - Criminal Justice System