Newton's First Law - Objects at Rest Stay at Rest

You've probably noticed that things don't just start moving on their own - they need a push or pull to get going. Newton's first law tells us that a resultant force is needed to make something start moving, speed up, slow down, or change direction.

Think of it this way: if you're sitting on a chair with zero resultant force acting on you, you'll stay put. If you're cycling in a straight line with no friction or air resistance (zero resultant force), you'd keep going at the same speed forever.

When there is a non-zero resultant force on an object, its velocity will change - it will accelerate in the direction of that force. This concept of inertia describes objects' tendency to continue in their current state, whether that's rest or uniform motion.

Key Point: The bigger the force, the bigger the change in motion - but mass matters too!

Newton's Second Law - Force Equals Mass Times Acceleration

Here's where things get mathematical, but don't worry - it's simpler than it looks! Newton's second law shows us that force and acceleration are directly proportional, whilst acceleration is inversely proportional to mass.

The famous equation F = ma $force = mass × acceleration$ tells us everything we need to know. A larger resultant force means more acceleration, but a larger mass means less acceleration for the same force.

Objects falling under gravity alone accelerate at about 10 m/s² - that's why dropped objects speed up as they fall. You can find an object's inertial mass using m = F/a, which measures how difficult it is to change the object's velocity.

Remember: Heavier objects are harder to speed up or slow down - that's why lorries take longer to stop than cars!

Testing Newton's Second Law in Practice

Scientists use clever experiments to prove Newton's laws work. The trolley experiment uses a card with a gap that interrupts a light gate signal twice as it passes through.

By measuring the length of each bit of card and timing the interruptions, software can calculate velocity using v = s/t. It then works out acceleration using a = Δv/t, where Δv is the difference between velocities.

The setup involves connecting the trolley to string over a pulley with masses attached. The weight provides the accelerating force (mass × gravity), and you can vary either the trolley mass or the hanging weight to test the relationships.

Results consistently show that acceleration is directly proportional to force and inversely proportional to mass - exactly what Newton predicted!

Experiment Tip: Always repeat measurements three times and calculate averages for more reliable results.

Typical Speeds and Newton's Third Law

It's useful to know typical speeds: walking $1.5 m/s$, running $3 m/s$, cycling $6 m/s$, cars $25 m/s$, trains $55 m/s$, planes $250 m/s$, and sound in air $330 m/s$. These help you check if your calculations make sense!

Newton's third law states that when two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite. This doesn't mean forces are balanced - they act on different objects.

A common mistake is thinking a book on a table demonstrates the third law. Actually, the book's weight and the table's normal contact force are different types of forces acting on the same object (the book).

The real third law pairs are: the table pushing up on the book equals the book pushing down on the table, and Earth pulling the book down equals the book pulling Earth up!

Think About It: When you walk, you push backwards on the ground, and the ground pushes you forwards - that's how you move!

Stopping Distances - Thinking and Braking

Your stopping distance has two parts: thinking distance (how far you travel during your reaction time) plus braking distance (how far you travel after applying brakes until you stop completely).

Thinking distance depends on speed and reaction time $typically 0.2-0.9 seconds$. The faster you're going, the further you travel during reaction time. Tiredness, drugs, alcohol, or lack of concentration all increase reaction time dangerously.

Braking distance is affected by speed, brake quality, tyre quality, and road conditions. Worn or faulty brakes can't apply as much force, whilst tyres should have minimum 1.6mm tread depth to prevent skidding.

Weather conditions like water, ice, or diesel spills increase braking distance by reducing friction between tyres and road. Remember: thinking distance is directly proportional to speed, but braking distance increases by the square of the speed increase!

Safety First: At 60mph, your thinking distance is double that at 30mph, but braking distance is four times longer!

Energy, Work, and Momentum in Motion

When brakes work, they transfer energy from the wheels' kinetic energy store to the brakes' thermal energy stores - that's why brakes get hot! The faster a vehicle goes, the more kinetic energy it has, so larger braking forces are needed.

If brakes overheat from very large decelerations, they may stop working and the driver loses control. This happens because lots of work transfers lots of energy to the thermal stores.

Momentum $p = mv$ is mass times velocity, measured in kg m/s. It's a vector quantity, so you must state both size and direction. The conservation of momentum principle states that in a closed system, total momentum before an event equals total momentum after.

You can test reaction times using the ruler drop test, calculating reaction time using the equation v² = u² + 2as, since gravitational acceleration is constant at roughly 9.8 m/s².

Physics Connection: Momentum conservation explains everything from snooker ball collisions to rocket launches!