Maths
Chemistry
Biology
English Language
History
Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
Cells
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
Show all topics
Combined Science
10 Dec 2025
209
17 pages
James Hope @jameshope_gmtc
Forces are everywhere around you - from gravity pulling you down to friction stopping you from slipping. Understanding... Show more
Forces are simply pushes or pulls that make things happen around you. Every time you kick a football, open a door, or even just stand still, forces are at work.
Forces come in two main types contact forces (where objects must touch) like friction and tension, and non-contact forces (where objects don't need to touch) like gravity and magnetism. Think of pushing a trolley versus a magnet attracting metal from across the room.
Here's something that might surprise you - forces are vector quantities, meaning they have both size and direction. Speed is just how fast you're going, but velocity tells you how fast AND which way you're heading.
Key Point When two objects interact, they always create equal and opposite forces on each other - this is why you can feel the ground pushing back when you walk on it!
Don't get confused between mass and weight - they're completely different! Your mass is the amount of 'stuff' in your body and stays the same whether you're on Earth or the Moon. But your weight changes because it's the force of gravity pulling on you.
Weight = mass × gravitational field strength . On Earth, g = 9.8 N/kg, but on the Moon it's only 1.6 N/kg. So if you weigh 500N on Earth, you'd only weigh about 80N on the Moon - though your mass stays exactly the same!
Weight is measured in newtons using a spring balance, whilst mass is measured in kilograms using a mass balance. Remember weight is a force, mass isn't.
Remember Mass and weight are directly proportional - double your mass and you double your weight too!
The resultant force is the overall effect when multiple forces act on an object. It's like having several people pushing a car - some forwards, some backwards - and working out the final push.
Free body diagrams show all forces acting on an object using arrows. The length shows the force's strength, and the direction shows which way it's acting. For forces along the same line, add forces going the same way and subtract those going opposite ways.
When forces are balanced (equilibrium), the resultant force is zero. This means the object either stays still or moves at constant velocity - like when you're walking at a steady pace.
Pro Tip Use scale drawings to find resultant forces - draw forces to scale, then measure the line from start to finish to find your answer!
Springs follow a simple rule force = spring constant × extension . Double the force, double the extension - but only up to a point called the limit of proportionality.
Elastic deformation means the spring returns to its original shape when you remove the force. Plastic deformation means it stays permanently changed - like when you've stretched a spring too far.
The elastic potential energy stored in a spring is calculated using Ee = ½ke². This energy gets stored when you stretch the spring and released when it springs back.
Lab Alert When investigating springs, always measure at eye level and use a marker on the bottom of the spring for accurate readings!
Distance and speed are scalars (no direction needed), but displacement and velocity are vectors (direction matters). You could run 100m around a track but end up with zero displacement if you finish where you started!
Use s = vt to calculate distance, speed or time. Remember these typical speeds walking , cycling , cars , and planes .
Acceleration is how quickly velocity changes, and it's also a vector. Objects rarely travel at constant speed, so most calculations give you average values over a time period.
Real World At a roundabout, cars maintain constant speed but have changing velocity because they're constantly changing direction!
Newton's First Law Objects stay still or keep moving at constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force. This is called inertia - your tendency to resist changes in motion.
Newton's Second Law The bigger the force, the bigger the acceleration . Newton's Third Law Every action has an equal and opposite reaction - when you walk, you push Earth backwards and Earth pushes you forwards.
Terminal velocity occurs when drag force equals weight, giving zero acceleration. Think of a skydiver falling at constant speed when air resistance balances their weight.
Think About It When you're in a car that suddenly stops, your body keeps moving forward due to inertia - that's why seatbelts are essential!
Your stopping distance has two parts thinking distance (how far you travel while reacting) and braking distance (how far you travel while the brakes work).
Reaction times vary between people and get worse when you're tired, distracted, or under the influence of drugs or alcohol. You can test reaction time using the ruler drop test.
Stopping distance increases dramatically with speed because kinetic energy increases with the square of velocity. This is why speed limits exist and why tailgating is so dangerous.
Safety First Poor weather, worn brakes, and bald tyres all increase braking distance - sometimes by several car lengths!
Momentum = mass × velocity and it's always conserved in collisions. This means the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after.
In car crashes, momentum conservation explains why small cars suffer more damage when hitting large trucks. The momentum has to go somewhere, and lighter objects experience bigger changes in velocity.
Understanding momentum helps explain everything from how rockets work (pushing fuel backwards creates forward momentum) to why crumple zones save lives (they increase collision time, reducing the forces involved).
Key Insight Momentum is conserved in all interactions - this fundamental principle governs everything from snooker balls to space missions!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
James Hope
@jameshope_gmtc
Forces are everywhere around you - from gravity pulling you down to friction stopping you from slipping. Understanding how forces work is crucial for explaining everything from why you fall when you jump to how rockets blast into space.
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Forces are simply pushes or pulls that make things happen around you. Every time you kick a football, open a door, or even just stand still, forces are at work.
Forces come in two main types: contact forces (where objects must touch) like friction and tension, and non-contact forces (where objects don't need to touch) like gravity and magnetism. Think of pushing a trolley versus a magnet attracting metal from across the room.
Here's something that might surprise you - forces are vector quantities, meaning they have both size and direction. Speed is just how fast you're going, but velocity tells you how fast AND which way you're heading.
Key Point: When two objects interact, they always create equal and opposite forces on each other - this is why you can feel the ground pushing back when you walk on it!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Don't get confused between mass and weight - they're completely different! Your mass is the amount of 'stuff' in your body and stays the same whether you're on Earth or the Moon. But your weight changes because it's the force of gravity pulling on you.
Weight = mass × gravitational field strength . On Earth, g = 9.8 N/kg, but on the Moon it's only 1.6 N/kg. So if you weigh 500N on Earth, you'd only weigh about 80N on the Moon - though your mass stays exactly the same!
Weight is measured in newtons using a spring balance, whilst mass is measured in kilograms using a mass balance. Remember: weight is a force, mass isn't.
Remember: Mass and weight are directly proportional - double your mass and you double your weight too!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The resultant force is the overall effect when multiple forces act on an object. It's like having several people pushing a car - some forwards, some backwards - and working out the final push.
Free body diagrams show all forces acting on an object using arrows. The length shows the force's strength, and the direction shows which way it's acting. For forces along the same line, add forces going the same way and subtract those going opposite ways.
When forces are balanced (equilibrium), the resultant force is zero. This means the object either stays still or moves at constant velocity - like when you're walking at a steady pace.
Pro Tip: Use scale drawings to find resultant forces - draw forces to scale, then measure the line from start to finish to find your answer!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Springs follow a simple rule: force = spring constant × extension . Double the force, double the extension - but only up to a point called the limit of proportionality.
Elastic deformation means the spring returns to its original shape when you remove the force. Plastic deformation means it stays permanently changed - like when you've stretched a spring too far.
The elastic potential energy stored in a spring is calculated using Ee = ½ke². This energy gets stored when you stretch the spring and released when it springs back.
Lab Alert: When investigating springs, always measure at eye level and use a marker on the bottom of the spring for accurate readings!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Distance and speed are scalars (no direction needed), but displacement and velocity are vectors (direction matters). You could run 100m around a track but end up with zero displacement if you finish where you started!
Use s = vt to calculate distance, speed or time. Remember these typical speeds: walking , cycling , cars , and planes .
Acceleration is how quickly velocity changes, and it's also a vector. Objects rarely travel at constant speed, so most calculations give you average values over a time period.
Real World: At a roundabout, cars maintain constant speed but have changing velocity because they're constantly changing direction!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Newton's First Law: Objects stay still or keep moving at constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force. This is called inertia - your tendency to resist changes in motion.
Newton's Second Law: The bigger the force, the bigger the acceleration . Newton's Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction - when you walk, you push Earth backwards and Earth pushes you forwards.
Terminal velocity occurs when drag force equals weight, giving zero acceleration. Think of a skydiver falling at constant speed when air resistance balances their weight.
Think About It: When you're in a car that suddenly stops, your body keeps moving forward due to inertia - that's why seatbelts are essential!
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By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Your stopping distance has two parts: thinking distance (how far you travel while reacting) and braking distance (how far you travel while the brakes work).
Reaction times vary between people and get worse when you're tired, distracted, or under the influence of drugs or alcohol. You can test reaction time using the ruler drop test.
Stopping distance increases dramatically with speed because kinetic energy increases with the square of velocity. This is why speed limits exist and why tailgating is so dangerous.
Safety First: Poor weather, worn brakes, and bald tyres all increase braking distance - sometimes by several car lengths!
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Momentum = mass × velocity and it's always conserved in collisions. This means the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after.
In car crashes, momentum conservation explains why small cars suffer more damage when hitting large trucks. The momentum has to go somewhere, and lighter objects experience bigger changes in velocity.
Understanding momentum helps explain everything from how rockets work (pushing fuel backwards creates forward momentum) to why crumple zones save lives (they increase collision time, reducing the forces involved).
Key Insight: Momentum is conserved in all interactions - this fundamental principle governs everything from snooker balls to space missions!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
0
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Physics
Sociology